Category: CBSE

Accounting for Not-for-Profit Organisation –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Accountancy

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Topic1: Concepts of Partnership and Partnership Deed
1. Partnership According to Section 4 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, ‘Partnership is defined as, ‘the relation between persons who have, agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all’.
2. Nature of Partnership Partnership is a separate business entity from accounting point of view, but from a legal viewpoint, partnership firm is not a separate legal entity from its partners.
3. Features of Partnership
(i) Two or more persons (ii) Agreement
(iii) Business (iv) Mutual agency
(v) Sharing of profits and losses (vi) Liability of partnership
(vii) Management and control (viii) Registration
4. Partnership Deed It is a document which contains the terms and conditions of partnership agreement.
A firm should have a partnership deed because:
(i) It regulates the rights, duties and liabilities of the partners.
(ii) It avoids disputes in future by acting as a proof.
5. Accounting Rules Applicable in the Absence of Partnership Deed
(i) Sharing of profits and losses – Equally.
(ii) Interest on capital – Not allowed.
(iii) Remuneration or salary to the partners – Not allowed.
(iv) Interest on partner’s loan – Allowed @ 6% per annum.
(v) Interest on drawings – Not charged.
Topic 2: Computation of Appropriation Items and Charge Items
1. Interest on Capital Interest on capital is allowed to compensate partners for contributing capital to the firm. It is paid only if the same has been provided for in the partnership.

JOURNAL
(i) Interest on Capital A/c                              Dr
To Partners Capital/Current A/c
(ii) Profit and Loss Appropriation A/c       Dr
To Interest on Capital A/c
Different cases related to interest on capital:
(i) When partnership deed is silent-Not allowed
(ii) When partnership deed provides that interest on capital is to be allowed.
There are three possible conditions:
(a) In case of loss Not allowed.
(b) In case of sufficient profit Interest on capital is allowed in full.
(c) In case of insufficient profit Interest on capital is allowed proportionately to the extent of profits. In this case profits are distributed in capital ratio.
(iii) If interest on capital is to be provided as a charge, it is allowed in full irrespective of profit or losses.
NOTE (i) Interest on additional capital will be calculated for the period it remained with the firm, i.e. from the date of introduction of additional capital to the last day of accounting year.
If Opening Capital is not given, it can be calculated as:
Opening Capital = Closing Capital + Drawings – Profits – Additional Capital
(ii) Interest on capital is calculated on the opening balance of the capital for the full year.
2. Interest on Partner’s Drawings The amount withdrawn by partners in cash or in kind for their personal use in anticipation of profits, is termed as drawings. When the partnership deed is silent, no interest on drawings is charged. Interest on drawings is calculated with reference to time period for which money was withdrawn. Interest on drawings in different cases is calculated as follows:
(i) If a partner withdraws a fixed amount in the beginning, middle and end of each period.

Value of time under different circumstances will be as under:

(ii) When an unequal amount is withdrawn at different dates, the interest on drawings is calculated with the help of
(a) Simple method
(b) Product method

(iii) If the date of withdraw is not given, then the interest on total drawings for the year is calculated for a six month period on an average basis.
3. Accounting Treatment of Salary or Commission to a Partner
Salary or commission to a partner is to be allowed if the partnership agreement provides for the same. Salary or commission to a partner is an appropriation out of profits and not a charge against the profits, i.e. they are to be allowed only if there are profits and hence, must be transferred to the debit of profit and loss appropriation account and not to the debit of profit and loss account.
Commission may be allowed as a percentage of net profit before charging such commission or after charging such commission.

NOTE: Charges such as interest on partner’s loans, manager’s salary and commission must be deducted from profit before transferring it to profit and loss appropriation account.
4. Accounting Treatment of Interest on Partner’s Loan to the Firm Interest on partner’s loan is a charge against the profits and not an appropriation out of profits and hence, must be transferred to the debit of profit and loss account and not to the debit of profit and loss appropriation account.
NOTE: (i) If there is an agreement as to the rate of interest, partner is entitled to an interest on loan at an agreed rate of interest. If there is no agreement as to the rate of interest, partner is entitled to interest on loan @ 6% per annum.
(ii) Interest on partner’s loan is not recorded in the partner’s capital/current account but it should be recorded to the credit side of partner’s loan account if it is outstanding.
5. Rent Paid to a Partner It is a charge against the profit and not an appropriation out of profits. It is, therefore, debited to profit and loss account and credited to partner’s current account in case of fixed capitals or to partner’s capital account, when capitals are fluctuating.
Topic 3: Maintenance of Capital Accounts of Partners: Fixed and Fluctuating Capital
1. Fixed Capital Under this method, the capitals of the partners shall remain fixed, unless additional capital is introduced or a part of the capital is withdrawn, as per the agreement among the partners.
Two accounts are maintained under this method:
Capital accounts and current accounts.
Transactions related to introduction and withdrawal of capital are recorded in capital account, rest are recorded in current account.
Capital account will always have credit balance and current account may have credit or debit balance.

2. Fluctuating Capital Under this method, only one account, i.e. capital account of each partner is maintained.
All transactions are recorded in capital accounts. Generally, capital account has credit balance but in exceptional cases it may have debit balance due to heavy losses or withdrawals.

Reconstitution of a Partnership Firm — Admission of a Partner –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Accountancy

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Topic 1: introduction and New Profit Sharing Ratio and Sacrificing Ratio
1. Meaning Admission of a partner is one of the modes of reconstituting the firm under which old partnership comes to an end and a new one between all partners (including incoming partner) comes into existence.
According to Section 31(1) of Indian Partnership Act, 1932, ‘A new partner can be admitted only with the consent of all the existing partners’.
A new partner is admitted for the following purposes:
(i) For procuring additional capital.
(ii) For acquiring additional managerial skills.
A newly admitted partner acquires following two main rights in the firm:
(i) Share in the future profits of the firm.
(ii) Share in the assets of the firm.
2. Adjustments Required at the Time of Admission of a New Partner
(i) Calculation of new profit sharing ratio and sacrificing ratio.
(ii) Accounting treatment of goodwill.
(iii) Accounting treatment of revaluation of assets and re-assessment of liabilities.
(iv) Accounting treatment of reserves accumulated profit and losses.
(v) Adjustment of capital.
3. New Profit Sharing Ratio The ratio in which all the partners (including incoming partner) share the future profits and losses is known as new profit sharing ratio.
New Profit Sharing Ratio = Old Ratio – Sacrificing Ratio
4. Sacrificing Ratio It is the ratio in which the old partners have agreed to sacrifice their share of profits in favour of new or incoming partner.
Sacrificing Ratio = Old Ratio – New Ratio
Topic 2: Treatment of Goodwill
1. Accounting Treatment of Goodwill When a new partner is admitted, his share in future profits of the firm is equal to the sacrifice of profit by an existing partner or partners of the firm, the amount he pays to compensate this sacrifice is called goodwill.
2. Various cases related to the treatment of goodwill
(i) When premium for goodwill is paid privately by new partner.
In case a new partner pays premium to the old partners privately or directly or outside the business, it will not be recorded because it is an out of business transaction. However, entry will be passed for capital brought in by new partner.
(ii) When premium for goodwill is brought in business by new partner in cash and retained in the business
(a) Write-off the existing goodwill (if any) appearing in the books of the firms
Old Partner’s Capital A/c Dr [In old ratio]
To Goodwill A/c
(b) For bringing premium for goodwill and capital in cash:
Cash/Bank A/c Dr
To Premium for Goodwill A/c To New Partner’s Capital A/c
(c) For distributing premium to sacrificing (old) partners in their sacrificing ratio:
Premium for Goodwill A/c Dr
To Sacrificing Partner’s Capital A/c
(iii) When premium for goodwill is brought in kind
(a) For bringing premium for goodwill and capital in assets:
Assets A/c Dr
To Premium for Goodwill A/c To New Partner’s Capital A/c
(b) For distributing premium to sacrificing (old) partners in their sacrificing ratio:
Premium for Goodwill A/c Dr
To Sacrificing Partner’s Capital A/c
(iv) When premium for goodwill is brought in by new partner and is withdrawn by old (sacrificing) partners folly or partly.
(a) For bringing premium for goodwill in cash by new partner
Cash/Bank A/c Dr [Amount of premium]
To Premium for Goodwill A/c
(b) For sharing of premium for goodwill by sacrificing partners
Premium for Goodwill A/c Dr [Amount of premium]
To Sacrificing Partner’s Capital A/c (in sacrificing ratio)
(c) For withdrawal of premium money by sacrificing partners fully/partly
Sacrificing Partner’s Capital A/c (Amount withdrawn) Dr To Cash/Bank A/c
(v) When a new partner brings only a part of premium for goodwill in cash
(a) For amount brought in by incoming Partner
Cash/Bank A/c Dr
To Premium for Goodwill A/c To New Partner’s Capital A/c
(b) For distributing the total goodwill due from incoming partner to sacrificing (old) partners in their sacrificing ratio
Premium for Goodwill A/c Dr
New Partner’s Capital/ Current A/c Dr
To Sacrificing (old) Partner’s Capital/ Current A/c
(vi) When the new partner is unable to bring his share of premium for goodwill in cash or kind
New Partner’s Capital/Current A/c Dr
To Sacrificing (old) Partner’s Capital/Current A/c
3. Hidden Goodwill Hidden or inferred goodwill is the excess of desired total capital of the firm over the actual combined capital of all the partners. In case, the value of goodwill is not given at the time of admission of a new partner, it is required to be calculated on the basis of an inferred method of profit sharing ratio or capitalisation.

Topic 3: Revaluation of Assets and Re-assessment of Liabilities
1. Meaning of Revaluation Account The account which is prepared to record changes in the value of assets and liabilities at the time of admission, retirement, death and change in profit sharing ratio is called revaluation account.
2. Accounting Treatment
The relevant journal entries are:

Format of Revaluation Account

3. Accounting Treatment of Reserves, Undistributed Profits or Losses
The new partner is not entitled to any share in undistributed profits or losses appearing in the balance sheet at the time of admission, as these are earned by the old partners. So, these should be transferred to old partners’ capital/current account.
Journal entries passed will be
(i) For Undistributed Profits,
General Reserve A/c Profit and Loss A/c Workmen Compensation Fund A/c Investment Fluctuation Fund A/c between book value and market value]
To Old Partner’s Capital/Current A/c [Old ratio]
(ii) For Undistributed Losses
Old Partner’s Capital/Current A/c Dr [Old ratio]
To Profit and Loss A/c To Deferred Revenue Expenditure A/c
Topic 4: Adjustment of Capital
At the time of admission of a new partner, the partners may agree that their capitals should also be adjusted so as to be proportionate to their profit sharing ratio.
The capitals of partners may be adjusted in any of the following ways:
(i) Adjusting the capitals of old partners on the basis of the capital of incoming partner
(When the total capital of the new firm is not given)
Steps involved in adjusting the capitals of old partners:
Step 1 Calculate total capital of the firm on the basis of capital of new partner.
Step 2 Calculate the new capitals of each partner.
Step 3 Ascertain the present capital of old partners (adjusted).
Step 4 Calculate the surplus/deficit capital by comparing Step 2 and Step 3.
(ii) Determining the new partner’s capital on the basis of combined capital of old partners
Steps involved in the determination of capital of new partner:
Step 1 Calculate the adjusted old capitals of old partners (after all adjustments have been made.
Step 2 Calculate the total capital of new firm.
Step 3 Calculate the total capitals of new partners as follows:
Total Capital (Step 2) x Share of New Partner

Dissolution of Partnership Firm –  CBSE Notes for Class 12 Accountancy

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1. Dissolution Dissolution means discontinuance of existing relationship among the partners. According to Indian Partnership Act, 1932, dissolution may be either of partnership or of a firm.
2. Dissolution of Partnership It changes the existing relationship between partners but the firm may continue its business as before.
3. Dissolution of Partnership Firm Dissolution of firm means dissolution of partnership among all the partners in the firm. In this case, business of the firm also comes to an end.
4. Modes of Dissolution of Partnership Firm
(i) Dissolution by mutual agreement (ii) Compulsory dissolution
(iii) Dissolution on the happening of an event (iv) Dissolution by notice
(v) Dissolution by court
5. Settlement of Accounts in Case of Dissolution of Firm
(i) Treatment of Losses
Losses shall be paid, first out of profits, then out of partner’s capital and lastly, by the partners individually in their profit sharing ratio, if necessary.
(ii) Application of Assets
(a) Payment to outsiders/creditors
(b) Loans and advances of partners
(c) Payment of capital of partners
(d) The balance shall be divided among the partners in their profit sharing ratio
6. Treatment of Firms Debt and Private Debts
Where both the debts of the firm and private debts of a partner co-exist.
The following rules, as stated in Section 49 of the Act, shall apply
(i) Firm’s property is applied first in payment of firm’s debts and if there is any surplus, then the share of each partner is applied in the payment of his private debts or paid to him.
(ii) Partner’s private property is applied first in payment of his private debts and the surplus (if any) in payment of firm’s debts if the firms liabilities exceed the firm’s assets.
7. Accounting Treatment on Dissolution of Firm
On dissolution, the books of the firm are closed. The process is completed by opening the following accounts:
(i) Realisation account (ii) Partners’ capital account
(iii) Partners’ loan account (iv) Cash/bank account
(i) Realisation Account
It is a nominal account prepared at the time of dissolution of partnership firm to show profit or loss on realisation of assets and payment of liabilities.

NOTE: (i) Goodwill appearing in the balance sheet is treated as any other asset. In case, question is silent about the realisation of goodwill, it is assumed the goodwill does not have any value and no amount is realised for it.
(ii) When an asset is transferred to realisation account, its corresponding reserve or provision appearing on the liabilities side of balance sheet is also transferred to realisation account.
(iii) In the absence of any information regarding realisation of assets (tangible or intangible) and settlement of any outside liabilities, it should be assumed that no amount has been realised from such assets and an amount equal to the book value of such liability has been paid off.
Format of Realisation Account

NOTE: All provisions created against any asset or liabilities/provision for doubtful debts, provision for depreciation should be transferred to realisation account on credit or debit side as the case may be and it should be noted that those assets or liabilities should appear in realisation account at gross value.
(ii) Partners’ Capital Account
Balance of partner’s capital and current account are recorded in this account. Any asset of the firm taken over by the partner is recorded on the debit side and liability taken over is recorded on the credit side. Undistributed profits and reserves are recorded on the credit side and undistributed losses or fictitious assets are recorded on the debit side. When capital accounts are maintained following fixed capital account method, partners have current accounts also. These current accounts may have credit or debit balance. Current accounts are closed by transferring them to concerned partner’s fixed capital accounts.
The entries are as follows
(a) In case of debit balance in a current accounts of a partner
Concerned Partners’ Capital A/c               Dr
To Concerned Partners’ Current A/c
(b) In case of credit balance in a current account of a partner
Concerned Partners’ Current A/c            Dr
To Concerned Partners’ Capital A/c
The balance of partner’s capital account are closed in the following manner
(a) For making final payment to a partner (In case of credit balance)
Partner’s Capital A/c                                 Dr
To Cash/Bank A/c
(b) When a partner is required to bring in cash (In case of a debit balance)
Cash/Bank A/c                                         Dr
To Partner’s Capital A/c
Format of Partner’s Capital Account

(iii) Partner’s Loan Account
Partner’s loan will be paid after all outside liabilities are paid Partner’s Loan A/c       Dr
To Cash/Bank A/c
(iv) Bank or Cash Account
It is a real account. On debit side, opening balance, amount realised through sale of assets and any amount paid in by the partners are shown. On the credit side, all the payments for liabilities, realisation expenses and final settlement made to partners are shown. In case both cash and bank balances appear in balance sheet, it is always better to open a single account. It is a self-balancing account.
Format of Cash/Bank Account

8. Preparation of Memorandum Balance Sheet for Ascertaining Sundry Assets
Memorandum balance sheet is prepared for calculating the missing figures of sundry assets. Sometimes, the total value of sundry assets is not given. However, the value realised from the assets is given, also the partners capitals and other liabilities are also given. In that case, sundry assets have to be ascertained by preparing the old balance sheet. The amount of capitals and other liabilities are added. The sum total is the total amount of assets.

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Electric Charges and Fields Class 12 Notes Chapter 1

Electric Charges And Fields Class 12 Notes
1. Electric Charge Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electric and magnetic effect.
2. Conductors and Insulators Those substances which readily allow the passage of electricity through them are called conductors, e.g. metals, the earth and those substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity are called insulators, e.g. plastic rod and nylon.
3. Transference of electrons is the cause of frictional electricity.
4. Additivity of Charges Charges are scalars and they add up like real numbers. It means if a system consists of n charges q₁, q₂, q₃ , … ,q_n, then total charge of the system will be q₁ +q₂ + … +q_n.
5. Conservation of Charge The total charge of an isolated system is always conserved, i.e. initial and final charge of the system will be same.
6. Quantisation of Charge Charge exists in discrete amount rather than continuous value and hence, quantised.
Mathematically, charge on an object, q=±ne
where, n is an integer and e is electronic charge. When any physical quantity exists in discrete packets rather than in continuous amount, the quantity is said to be quantised. Hence, charge is quantised.
Electric Charges And Fields Class 12
7. Units of Charge
(i) SI unit coulomb (C)
(ii) CGS system
(a) electrostatic unit, esu of charge or stat-coulomb (stat-C)
(b) electromagnetic unit, emu of charge or ab-C (ab-coulomb)
1 ab-C = 10 C, 1 C = 3 x 10⁹ stat-C
Electric Charges And Fields Notes
8. Coulomb’s Law It states that the electrostatic force of interaction or repulsion acting between two stationary point charges is given by

9. Electrostatic forces (Coulombian forces) are conservative forces.
10. Principle of Superposition of Electrostatic Forces This principle states that the net electric force experienced by a given charge particle q₀ due to a system of charged particles is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due to all the other charged particles of the system.



Electric Field And Charges Class 12 Notes
11. Electrostatic Force due to Continuous Charge Distribution
The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to have continuous distribution of charge. It is of three types given as below:

Class 12 Electric Charges And Fields Notes
12. Electric Field Intensity The electric field intensity at any point due to source charge is defined as the force experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that point without disturbing the source charge. It is expressed as

Notes Of Electric Charges And Fields
13. Electric Field Intensity (EFI) due to a Point Charge

14. Electric Field due to a System of Charges
Same as the case of electrostatic force, here we will apply principle of superposition, i.e.


Electric Charge Class 12
15. Electric Field Lines Electric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration of charge(s). These lines start on positive charge and end on negative charge. The tangent on these lines at any point gives the direction of field at that point.
16. Electric field lines due to positive and negative charge and their combinations are shown as below:

17. Electric Dipole Two point charges of same magnitude and opposite nature separated by a small distance altogether form an electric dipole.
18. Electric Dipole Moment The strength of an electric dipole is measured by a vector quantity known as electric dipole moment (p) which is the product of the charge (q) and separation between the charges (2l).


19. Electric Field due to a Dipole Electric field of an electric dipole is the space around the dipole in which the electric effect of the dipole can be experienced.

Electric Field Class 12 Notes
21. Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field (E) is given by


24. Dipole is in stable equilibrium in uniform electric field when angle between p and E is 0° and in unstable equilibrium when angle θ= 180°.
25. Net force on electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is zero.
26. There exists a net force and torque on electric dipole when placed in non-uniform electric field.
27. Work done in rotating the electric dipole from θ₁ to θ₂ is W = pE (cos θ₁ – cos θ₂)
Electric Field Class 12
28. Potential energy of electric dipole when it rotates from θ₁ = 90° to θ₂ =0
U = pE (cos 90° – cosθ) = -pE cos θ = – p .E
29. Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to unstable equilibrium, i.e. when θ₁ = 0° and θ₂ = π.
W = 2 pE
30. Work done in rotating the dipole from the position of stable equilibrium to the position in which dipole experiences maximum torque, i.e. when θ₁ = 0° and θ₂ = 90°.
W = pE

CBSE Notes

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Units and Measurement Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 2

Units And Measurements Class 11

• Measurement
  The process of measurement is basically a comparison process. To measure a physical quantity, we have to find out how many times a standard amount of that physical quantity is present in the quantity being measured. The number thus obtained is known as the magnitude and the standard chosen is called the unit of the physical quantity.
•  Unit
  The unit of a physical quantity is an arbitrarily chosen standard which is widely accepted by the society and in terms of which other quantities of similar nature may be measured.
• Standard
  The actual physical embodiment of the unit of a physical quantity is known as a standard of that physical quantity.
  • To express any measurement made we need the numerical value (n) and the unit (μ). Measurement of physical quantity = Numerical value x Unit
  For example: Length of a rod = 8 m
  where 8 is numerical value and m (metre) is unit of length.
• Fundamental Physical Quantity/Units
  It is an elementary physical quantity, which does not require any other physical quantity to express it. It means it cannot be resolved further in terms of any other physical quantity. It is also known as basic physical quantity.
  The units of fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units.
  For example, in M. K. S. system, Mass, Length and Time expressed in kilogram, metre and second respectively are fundamental units.
• Derived Physical Quantity/Units
  All those physical quantities, which can be derived from the combination of two or more fundamental quantities or can be expressed in terms of basic physical quantities, are called derived physical quantities.
  The units of all other physical quantities, which car. be obtained from fundamental units, are called derived units. For example, units of velocity, density and force are m/s, kg/m3, kg m/s2 respectively and they are examples of derived units.
• Systems of Units
  Earlier three different units systems were used in different countries. These were CGS, FPS and MKS systems. Now-a-days internationally SI system of units is followed. In SI unit system, seven quantities are taken as the base quantities.
  (i) CGS System. Centimetre, Gram and Second are used to express length, mass and time respectively.
  (ii) FPS System. Foot, pound and second are used to express length, mass and time respectively.
  (iii) MKS System. Length is expressed in metre, mass is expressed in kilogram and time is expressed in second. Metre, kilogram and second are used to express length, mass and time respectively.
  (iv) SI Units. Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, Amount of substance and luminous intensity are expressed in metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela respectively.
• Definitions of Fundamental Units
  
• Supplementary Units
  Besides the above mentioned seven units,there are two supplementary base units. these are (i) radian (rad) for angle, and (ii) steradian (sr) for solid angle.
  
• Advantages of SI Unit System
  SI Unit System has following advantages over the other Besides the above mentioned seven units, there are two supplementary base units. These are systems of units:
  
  (i) It is internationally accepted,
  (ii) It is a rational unit system,
  (iii) It is a coherent unit system,
  (iv) It is a metric system,
  (v) It is closely related to CGS and MKS systems of units,
  (vi) Uses decimal system, hence is more user friendly.
• Other Important Units of Length
  For measuring large distances e.g., distances of planets and stars etc., some bigger units of length such as ‘astronomical unit’, ‘light year’, parsec’ etc. are used.
  • The average separation between the Earth and the sun is called one astronomical unit.
  1 AU = 1.496 x 10¹¹ m.
  • The distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year is called light year.
  1 light year = 9.46 x 10¹⁵ m.
  • The distance at which an arc of length of one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second at a point is called parsec.
  1 parsec = 3.08 x 10¹⁶ m
  • Size of a tiny nucleus = 1 fermi = If = 10^-15 m
  • Size of a tiny atom = 1 angstrom = 1A = 10^-10 m
• Parallax Method
  This method is used to measure the distance of planets and stars from earth.
  Parallax. Hold a pen in front of your eyes and look at the pen by closing the right eye and ‘ then the left eye. What do you observe? The position of the pen changes with respect to the background. This relative shift in the position of the pen (object) w.r.t. background is called parallax.
  If a distant object e.g., a planet or a star subtends parallax angle 0 on an arc of radius b (known as basis) on Earth, then distance of that distant object from the basis is given by
  
  • To estimate size of atoms we can use electron microscope and tunneling microscopy technique. Rutherford’s a-particle scattering experiment enables us to estimate size of nuclei of different elements.
  • Pendulum clocks, mechanical watches (in which vibrations of a balance wheel are used) and quartz watches are commonly used to measure time. Cesium atomic clocks can be used to measure time with an accuracy of 1 part in 10¹³ (or to a maximum discrepancy of 3 ps in a year).
  • The SI unit of mass is kilogram. While dealing with atoms/ molecules and subatomic particles we define a unit known as “unified atomic mass unit” (1 u), where 1 u = 1.66 x 10^-27 kg.
  
• Estimation of Molecular Size of Oleic Acid
  For this 1 cm³ of oleic acid is dissolved in alcohol to make a solution of 20 cm³. Then 1 cm³ of this solution is taken and diluted to 20 cm³, using alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is as follows:
  
  After that some lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on the surface of water in a large trough and one drop of this solution is put in water. The oleic acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular thickness on water surface. Then, the diameter of the thin film is quickly measured to get its area A. Suppose n drops were put in the water. Initially, the approximate volume of each drop is determined (V cm³).
  Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm³
  Amount of oleic acid in this solution
  
  The solution of oleic acid spreads very fast on the surface of water and forms a very thin layer of thickness t. If this spreads to form a film of area A cm², then thickness of the film
  
  If we assume that the film has mono-molecular thickness, this becomes the size or diameter of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this thickness comes out to be of the order of 10^-9 m.
• Dimensions
  The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units of mass, length and time must be raised to represent the given physical quantity.
• Dimensional Formula
  The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an expression telling us how and which of the fundamental quantities enter into the unit of that quantity.
  It is customary to express the fundamental quantities by a capital letter, e.g., length (L), mass (AT), time (T), electric current (I), temperature (K) and luminous intensity (C). We write appropriate powers of these capital letters within square brackets to get the dimensional formula of any given physical quantity.
• Applications of Dimensions
  The concept of dimensions and dimensional formulae are put to the following uses:
  (i) Checking the results obtained
  (ii) Conversion from one system of units to another
  (iii) Deriving relationships between physical quantities
  (iv) Scaling and studying of models.
  The underlying principle for these uses is the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. According to this principle, the ‘net’ dimensions of the various physical quantities on both sides of a permissible physical relation must be the same; also only dimensionally similar quantities can be added to or subtracted from each other.
  
• Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
  The method of dimensions has the following limitations:
  (i) by this method the value of dimensionless constant cannot be calculated.
  (ii) by this method the equation containing trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic terms cannot be analyzed.
  (iii) if a physical quantity in mechanics depends on more than three factors, then relation among them cannot be established because we can have only three equations by equalizing the powers of M, L and T.
  (iv) it doesn’t tell whether the quantity is vector or scalar.
• Significant Figures
  The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a particular measurement of a physical quantity.
  Significant figures in a measurement are those digits in a physical quantity that are known reliably plus the first digit which is uncertain.
• The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures
  (i) All non-zero digits are significant.
  (ii) All zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.
  (iii) All zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant in numbers without decimal point.
  (iv) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant.
  (v) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant.
  (vi) In addition and subtraction, we should retain the least decimal place among the values operated, in the result.
  (vii) In multiplication and division, we should express the result with the least number of significant figures as associated with the least precise number in operation.
  (viii) If scientific notation is not used:
  (a) For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zeroes are not significant.
  (b) For a number with a decimal, the trailing zeros are significant.
•  Error
  The measured value of the physical quantity is usually different from its true value. The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument is an approximate number, which contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated quantity, which is based on measured values, also has an error.
• Causes of Errors in Measurement
  Following are the causes of errors in measurement:
  
  Least Count Error. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument. Least count may not be sufficiently small. The maximum possible error is equal to the least count.
  Instrumental Error. This is due to faulty calibration or change in conditions (e.g., thermal expansion of a measuring scale). An instrument may also have a zero error. A correction has to be applied.
  Random Error. This is also called chance error. It makes to give different results for same measurements taken repeatedly. These errors are assumed to follow the Gaussian law of normal distribution.
  Accidental Error. This error gives too high or too low results. Measurements involving this error are not included in calculations.
  Systematic Error. The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative. Errors due to air buoyancy in weighing and radiation loss in calorimetry are systematic errors. They can be eliminated by manipulation. Some of the sources of systematic errors are:
  (i) intrumental error
  (ii) imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
  (iii) personal errors
• Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error

1. Combination of Errors
   
2. IMPORTANT TABLES
   
   
   
   
   

Here are the detailed Semiconductor Electronic: Material, Devices And Simple Circuits Class 12 Notes Class 12 Notes Chapter 14. Thus the notes will be very helpful in preparation for examinations. Class 12 Physics notes cover all the important topics that are listed. It gives students a basic understanding of the past and the development of laws in physics. https://meritbatch.com/semiconductor-electronics-materials-devices-simple-circuits-cbse-notes-class-12-physics/

Semiconductor Electronic: Material, Devices And Simple Circuits Class 12 Notes Class 12 Notes Chapter 14

Semiconductor Class 12
1. Metals They possess very low resistivity or high conductivity.
ρ ~ 10^-2.10^-8 Ωm, σ ~10². 108 Sm^-1
2. Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10^-5. 10⁶ Ωm, σ ~ 10⁺⁵ .10^-6 Sm^-1
Types of Semiconductors Types of semiconductors are given below:
(i) Elements Semiconductors These semiconductors are available in natural form, e.g. silicon and germanium.
(ii) Compound Semiconductors These semiconductors are made by compounding the metals, e.g. CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, anthracene, polyaniline, etc.
Semiconductor Class 12 Notes
3. Insulators They have high resistivity or low conductivity.
ρ ~ 10¹¹ . 10¹⁹ Ωm, σ ~ 10^-11. 10^-19 Sm^-1
Semiconductor Notes
4. Energy Band In a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence electrons of one atom are shared by more than one atom in the crystal. Now, splitting of energy level takes place. The collection of these closely spaced energy levels are called an energy band.
Semiconductor Notes Class 12
5. Valence Band Valence band are the energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons.
6. Conduction Band Conduction band is the energy band above the valence band.
Semiconductors Class 12 Notes
7. Energy Band Gap The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is called energy band gap (E_g ).
8. Differences between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy bands are given below:

Semiconductors Class 12
9. Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0K)
10. On the basis of purity , semiconductors are of two types:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors It is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present
n_e  = n_h =n_i 
where , n_e and n_h are number densities of electrons and holes respectively and n_i  is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
An intrinsic semiconductor is also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type semiconductor
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors Pure semiconductor when doped with the impurity, it is known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types: (a) n-type semiconductors
(b) p-type semiconductors
NOTE: Both the type of semiconductors are electrically neutral.
Class 12 Semiconductor Notes
11. In n-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes, i.e. n_e> n_h .
Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its electrons bond with the four silicon neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom.
Formation of n-type semiconductor is shown below:

Notes Of Semiconductor Class 12
12. In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are eletron i.e. n_h  > n_e .
In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity atoms, i.e. those atoms which have three valence electrons in their valence shell.
Formation of p-type semiconductor is shown below:

Class 12 Physics Semiconductor Notes
13. At equilibrium condition, n_e n_h = n_i²
14. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair, hv > E_g  where, E_g  is energy band gap.
Semiconductor Chapter Class 12 Notes
15. Electric current, I = eA(n_ev_e + n_hv_h) where, A is area of cross-section.
where, v_e and v_h are speed of electron and hole respectively.

18. p-n Junction A p-n junction is an arrangement made by a close contact of n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.
Semiconductors Notes
19. Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction During formation of p-n junction, due to the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p —> n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n —> p).
This space charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region.
Depletion region is free from mobile charge carriers. Width of depletion region is of the order of 10^-6 m. The potential difference developed across the depletion region is called the potential barrier.

20. Semiconductor Diode/p-n Junction Diode A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage.

The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current (when the diode is under forward bias).
21. The graphical relations between voltage applied across p-n junction and current flowing through the junction are called I-V characteristics of junction diode.
Chapter 14 Physics Class 12 Notes
22. (i) Junction diode is said to be forward bias when the positive terminal of the external
battery is connected less to the p-side and negative terminal to the n-side of the diode. The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a forward biased diode is shown below:

The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a reverse biased diode is shown below.

23. The DC resistance of a junction diode,
r_DC = V/I
Ch 14 Physics Class 12 Notes
24. The dynamic resistance of junction diode,
r_AC = ∆V/∆I
25. Diode as Rectifier The process of converting alternating voltage/current into direct voltage/current is called rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for converting alternating current/voltage into direct current/voltage.
There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier i.e.

(i) Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier Diode conducts corresponding to positive half cycle and does not conduct during negative half cycle. Hence, AC is converted by diode into unidirectional pulsating DC. This action is known as half-wave rectification.
Circuit diagram of p-n junction diode as half-wave rectifier is shown below:
The input and output wave forms have been given below:

(ii) Diode as a Full-Wave Rectifier In the full-wave rectifier, two p-n junction diodes, D₁ and D₂ are used. The circuit diagram or full-wave rectifier is shown below:

The input and output wave forms have been given below:

Its working based on the principle that junction diode offer very low resistance in forward bias and very high resistance in reverse bias.
Semiconductor Electronics Class 12
26. The average value or DC value obtained from a half-wave rectifier,

27. The average value or DC value obtained from a full-wave rectifier,

28. The pulse frequency of a half-wave rectifier is equal to frequency of AC.
29. The pulse frequency of a full-wave rectifier is double to that of AC.
30. Optoelectronic Devices Semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons, i.e. photo-excitation, such devices are known as optoelectronic devices.
These are as follows:
(i) Light Emitting Diode (LED) It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy into light energy.

LEDs has the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps
(a) Fast action and no warm up time required
(b) It is nearly monochromatic
(c) Low operational voltage and less power consumed
(d) Fast ON-OFF switching capability.
(ii) Photodiode A photodiode is a special type of junction diode used for detecting optical signals. It is a reverse biased p-n junction made from a photosensitive material. Its symbol is

Its V-I characteristics of photodiode are shown below:

We observe from the figure that current in photodiode changes with the change in light intensity (I) when reverse bias is applied.
(iii) Solar Cell Solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy. Its symbol is

V-I characteristics of solar cell are shown below:

The materials used for solar cell are Si and GaAs.
31. Zener Diode Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped p-n junction diode. It is operated in breakdown region.

32. Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator When the applied reverse voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage (V_z) of the Zener diode there is a large change in the current. So, after the breakdown voltage V_z, a large change in the current can be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage i.e. Zener voltage remains constant even though the current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range. The circuital arrangement is shown as follows.

CBSE Notes

Here are the detailed Nuclei Class 12 Notes Chapter 13. Thus the notes will be very helpful in preparation for examinations. Class 12 Physics notes cover all the important topics that are listed. It gives students a basic understanding of the past and the development of laws in physics. https://meritbatch.com/nuclei-cbse-notes-class-12-physics/

Nuclei Class 12 Notes Chapter 13

Nuclei Class 12 Notes
1. In every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the centre of the atom forming its nucleus. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
Nuclei Notes Class 12
2. Atomic Mass Unit (amu) The unit to express atomic masses is called atomic mass
unit. Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 th of the mass of carbon atom (C₁₂).

Nuclei Class 12
3. Composition of Nucleus The composition of a nucleus can be described by using the following terms and symbols.
(i) Atomic Number Z Atomic number of an element is the number of protons present inside the nucleus of an atom of the element.
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons
(ii) Mass Number A Mass number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons inside the atomic nucleus of the element.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Number of electrons + Number of neutrons i.e. A=Z.+ N
Atoms And Nuclei Class 12 Notes
4. Size of Nucleus If R is the radius of the nucleus having mass number A, then

Nuclei Chapter Class 12 Notes
5. Nuclear Density Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of nucleus and its volume.

6. Radioactivity It is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom with emission of one or more radiations like α-particle, β-particle or γ-rays.
Notes Of Nuclei Class 12
7. Radioactive Decay It is a nuclear transformation process in which the radioactive rays are emitted from the nucleus of the atom. This process cannot be accelerated and slow down by any physical or chemical process.
8. Radioactivity Decay Law According to this law, the rate of decay of radioactive atoms at any instant is proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant.

Class 12 Physics Nuclei Notes
9. Half-life Half-life of a radioactive element is defined as the time during which half the number of atoms present initially in the sample of the element decay.

10. Mean Life/Average Life Average life of a radioactive element can be obtained by calculating the total life time of all the atoms of the radioactive element and dividing it by the total number of atoms present initially in the sample of the element.

Class 12 Physics Chapter 13 Notes
11. Time required to decay from N₀ to N

12. Decay Constant The radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the time during which the number of atoms in a radioactive substance reduces to 36.8% of their initial number.

Nuclei Notes
13. Radioactive Displacement Law The law of radioactive displacement is also known as Fajan’s and Soddy law. This law describes which chemical element and isotope is created during the particular type of radioactive decay.
(i) α- Decay In α-decay, the mass number of the product nucleus is four less than that of decaying nucleus while the atomic number decreases by two.

(ii) β-Decay In β-decay, the mass number of product nucleus remains same but atomic number increases or decreases by one.
In beta-minus decay (β^– ),an electron and an antineutrino are created and emitted from the nucleus via the reaction given below:

In beta-plus decay (β⁺), a positron and a neutrino are created and emitted from the nucleus via the reaction given below:

(iii) γ-Decay A γ- ray is emitted when a or β-decay results in a daughter nucleus in an excited state. Atom then returns to ground state by a single photon transition or successive transitions involving more than one photon.

Class 12 Physics Chapter Nuclei Notes
14. The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (B_q).
1 Becquerel(B_q) = 1 disintegration/second Other units
(i) Curie The activity of a radioactive sample is said to be one curie.
1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 10¹⁰ decays/second
(ii) Rutherford The activity of a radioactive sample is said to be one rutherford.
1 rutherford (Rd) = 10⁶ decays/second

CBSE Notes

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What Happened to the Reptiles Summary In English

What Happened To The Reptiles Summary
Prem lived in a village. Last year something terrible happened there. The people of the village went mad. They started fighting with one another. Many houses were burnt. Many people were killed. So Prem ran away from his village. He ran a long time and finally reached Pambupatti. He saw some villagers standing near the well. He ran to them. Before he could say anything, he fainted.

When he opened his eyes, he found himself with an old man. Soon other villagers also came to him. They were all very kind. Prem said to the old man that he had never seen such a village in his life. His village was very different. At all other villages, he had seen people fighting in the name of religion or language. At Pambapatti, people lived in peace and cared for each other’s welfare. Thus Pambapatti was different from any other village. At this the old man told Prem a story. He said that Prem should tell that story in his own village when he reached there. At this Prem protested. He was determined not to return to his village. The behaviour of his villagers made him burn with shame. The old man, however, told his story.

What Happened To The Reptiles Summary Class 6
It happened a long, long time ago. Children lived in caves with their parents. As for animals, there were only reptiles. Every month the reptiles of Pambupatti had a big meeting. The president of these meetings was Makara, the biggest crocodile of the forest. Since it was the strongest, every reptile agreed with what he said.

Now one day Makara sent a letter to tortoises. He asked them not to come to the next meeting. A tortoise named Ahistay was very angry at it. Yet none of the tortoises had the courage to attend the meeting. Before the meeting Makara polished his teeth red so that they sparkled. At the meeting he said that the forest didn’t need tortoises. When some reptile tried to show his disagreement, Makara shouted to silence him. He said that the tortoises were stupid and slow. They are stupid enough to carry their houses on their back. Then he announced that he had given tortoises one week to leave the forest.

So the tortoises had to go. At first, all the animals were sad. But soon thereafter they were happy because there was now more food, more water and more space for them. After a few days, a smell of rot began to fill the forest.

What Happened To The Reptiles Summary Class 6 In Hindi
A month passed by. Now it was the turn of the snakes to be ordered out. Again, for a while the animals were happy because they had now no fear of a snake bite. A few days passed and the animals found that there were too many rats about them. After all, there were no snakes to eat them. The rats ate up the eggs of lizards and crocodiles. They chewed up even Makara’s own nest of eggs.

Then Makara had another idea. He asked every animal except the crocodiles to leave the forest. Now all kinds of awful things began to happen. The rats became bolder and now there were too many frogs as well. With the lizards gone, there were now millions of insects bigger and nastier than ever. It was a bad time for crocodiles. They could not understand what had happened to their happy forest home.

Summary Of What Happened To The Reptiles
Then the crocodiles understood the real problem. They were no longer so afraid of Makara. They sent urgent messages for the tortoises, snakes and lizards to come back to Pambupatti. It was a great day when all of them came back. In two months, the forest was back to normal.

Now Prem decided to return to his village and tell the story to his villagers. Some of them may laugh. Yet they may remember one day and understand that each of us has a place in the world. So for the welfare of his village, Prem wants to tell the story of reptiles to the people of his village.

What Happened to the Reptiles Summary In Hindi

प्रेम एक गाँव में रहता था। पिछले वर्ष वहाँ एक भयानक बात हुई। गाँव के लोग पागल हो गये। उन्होंने एक दूसरे से लड़ना प्रारंभ कर दिया। बहुत से घर जला दिए। बहुत से लोग मारे गये। अतः प्रेम अपने गाँव से भाग निकला। वह बड़ी देर तक भागता रहा और अंतत: पंबुपट्टी में पहुँच गया। उसने कुंए के पास कुछ ग्रामीणों को खड़े देखा। वह उनके पास दौड़ गया। इससे पहले कि वह कुछ बोल पाता वह मूर्छित हो गया।

Class 6 English What Happened To The Reptiles Summary
जब उसकी आँखें खुलीं, उसने अपने आपको एक बूढ़े आदमी के पास पाया। शीघ्र ही दूसरे ग्रामीण भी उसके पास आ गये। वे सब बड़े दयालु थे। प्रेम ने उस बूढ़े से कहा कि उसने अपने जीवन में कभी ऐसा गाँव नहीं देखा था। उसका गाँव इससे एकदम अलग था। अन्य सभी ग्रामों में उसने लोगों को धर्म अथवा भाषा के नाम पर लड़ते देखा था। पंबुपट्टी के लोग शांति से रहते और एक-दूसरे की चिंता करते थे। इस प्रकार पंबुपट्टी किसी भी अन्य गाँव से अलग था। इस पर बूढे व्यक्ति ने प्रेम को एक कहानी सुनायी। उसने कहा कि अपने गाँव में पहुँचने पर प्रेम यह कहानी अपने गाँव में सुनाये। प्रेम ने इसका विरोध किया। वह अपने गाँव को न लौटने पर आमादा था। अपने गाँव के लोगों के व्यवहार पर वह अत्यधिक शर्मिदा था। फिर भी बूढ़े ने अपनी कहानी सुनाई।

यह घटना बहुत बहुत समय पहले की है। बच्चे अपने माता-पिता के साथ गुफाओं में रहते थे। जहाँ तक पशुओं की बात है वहाँ सिर्फ सरीसृप (रेंगने वाले प्राणी) ही थे। पंबुपट्टी के सारे सरीसृपों को हर महीने एक बड़ी सभा होती थी। जंगल का सबसे बड़ा मगर जिसका नाम माकर था, इन सभाओं में सभापति होता था। क्योंकि वह सबसे अधिक ताकतवाला था, सारे सरीसृप उसकी बात से सहमत हो जाते थे।

What Happened To The Reptiles Summary In Hindi
अब एक दिन माकर ने कछुओं को एक पत्र भेजा। उसने उनसे अगली सभा में न आने को कहा। अहिस्तय नामक एक कछुए को इस पर बड़ा क्रोध आया। फिर भी किसी कछुए की हिम्मत सभा में आने की नहीं हुई। सभा के पहले माकर ने अपने दाँतों को लाल रंग से रंग दिया जिससे वह दमदमाने लगे। सभा में उसने कहा कि जंगल को कछुओं की जरूरत नहीं है। जब किसी सरीसृप ने अपनी असहमति दिखाने का प्रयत्न किया तो माकर ने चीख कर उसे चुप करा दिया। उसने कहा कि कछुएं मूर्ख और आलसी हैं। वे इतने मूर्ख हैं कि अपने घरों को अपनी पीठ पर लेकर चलते हैं। फिर उसने घोषणा की कि उसने कछुओं को जंगल छोड़ने के लिए एक सप्ताह का समय दिया है|

इस प्रकार कछुओं को जाना पड़ा। पहले तो सारे जानवर कुछ दु:खी हुए। परन्तु शीघ्र ही उसके बाद वे खुश हो गये क्योंकि अब उनके पास अधिक भोजन, अधिक पानी और अधिक स्थान था। कुछ दिनों बाद ही सारे जंगल, में सड़ांध फैलने लगी।

What Happened To The Reptiles Story In Hindi
एक महीना गुजर गया। अब बाहर निकाले जाने की बारी साँपों की थी। एक बार फिर कुछ समय के लिए जानवर प्रसन्न हो गये क्योंकि अब साँप से काटे जाने का उनका डर समाप्त हो गया था। कुछ दिन गुजरे और फिर पशुओं ने देखा कि उनके आस-पास चूहों की संख्या बहुत बढ़ गयी है। आखिर उन्हें खाने के लिए साँप नहीं थे। चूहों ने छिपकली और मगरमच्छ के अण्डों को खा लिया। उन्होंने माकर के अपने अण्डों का घोंसला भी खा डाला।

फिर माकर के दिमाग में एक और विचार आया। उसने मगरमच्छों को छोड़कर हर जानवर को जंगल से भाग जाने के लिए कहा। अब सब प्रकार की भयानक बातें होने लगीं। चूहों की हिम्मत और बढ़ गयी और अब मेंढक भी बहुत बढ़ गए थे। छिपकलियों के चले जाने से अब कीड़े लाखों की संख्या में बढ़ गये थे और ये पहले कभी की अपेक्षा कहीं अधिक बड़े और कष्टदायी भी थे। मगरमच्छों के लिए यह बुरा वक्त था। उनकी समझ में नहीं आ रहा था कि उनके खुशहाल जंगल-घर को आखिर हो क्या गया था।

Class 6 English Supplementary Chapter 9 Summary
अब मगरमच्छों को असली समस्या समझ में आ गयी। अब वे माकर से उतना डरते भी नहीं थे। उन्होंने कछुओं, साँपों और छिपकलियों के पास आवश्यक संदेश भेजा कि वे पंबुपट्टी में वापस आ जायें। वह महान दिन था जब वे सभी वापस आ गए। दो महीने के अंदर जंगल वापस पुरानी स्थिति में आ गया।

अब प्रेम ने निश्चय किया कि वह अपने गाँव वापस लौटेगा और अपने गाँववालों को यह कहानी सुनायेगा। हो सकता है उनमें से कुछ लोग हँसेंगे। फिर भी शायद वह इसे एक दिन याद करें और समझें कि इस संसार में हममें से प्रत्येक का एक स्थान है। अतः अपने गाँव की भलाई की खातिर, प्रेम सरीसृपों की कहानी अपने गाँव के लोगों को बताना चाहता है।

The CBSE Class 6 English Notes and Summary will also help students in their English exam preparation. A Strange Wrestling Match Summary Class 6 English has been formatted in a simple language enabling you to read it and get hold of what the author wants us to understand. https://meritbatch.com/a-strange-wrestling-match-summary/

A Strange Wrestling Match Summary In English

A Strange Wrestling Match Summary
Vijay Singh was a famous wrestler. But boasting was Vijay Singh’s weakness.
One day he was sitting in the market drinking milk. There were several youngmen surrounding him. Suddenly he boasted, “Why are people afraid of ghosts? I am not. I wish I met a stout ghost.

Thus, he declared his wish to meet a stout ghost. A person told him that ghosts roamed freely in the Haunted Desert. They looted and killed the travellers Vijay Singh felt scared. He felt that his boasting had pushed him into an awkward situation. Outwardly, he showed his disbelief in such fairy (false) tales.

Vijay Singh was told that the Haunted Desert was beyond an ugly black rock on the road to Jaisalmer. Vijay Singh made up his mind to find a ghost in the Haunted Desert. The entire village bade him farewell. An old woman handed him a small packet. Vijay Singh knew that the woman was very wise and not eccentric. Her gift, later on, helped him much to scare the ghost. Vijay Singh started walking. He reached the desert at sunset. It was a moonlit night. The ugly black rock was still a few miles ahead.

Summary Of A Strange Wrestling Match
The night had advanced. Vijay Singh opened the old woman’s packet. It contained a lump of salt and an egg. Vijay Singh stepped into the Haunted Desert. He heard a voice calling him by his name. The voice named itself as his friend, Natwar. It told him that he would get lost in the Desert. Vijay Singh asked Natwar to come near him and show him the way. In fact-Vijay Singh wanted to size up his enemy. Every good wrestler does so before starting the fight.

The ghost appeared. Vijay Singh told the ghost that he had a great desire to meet him. He added that he was just a plain lying ghost. The ghost was taken aback at his insulting words. People generally started back in horror when they met him.

The ghost concluded that Vijay Singh was an unfeeling creature. He was ignorant of the reason why Vijay Singh desired to see him. Vijay Singh called him a stupid ghost. He could not even read other men’s thoughts.

A Strange Wrestling Match Class 6 Summary
Vijay Singh told the ghost that he wanted to fight a ghost. This made the ghost speechless. He could never think of a man who would challenge him to fight. The ghost sized him up. He said, “Vijay Singh, you don’t appear all that strong to me.” Vijay Singh told the ghost that he would show him his strength. Wishing to have a psychological victory on the ghost, he said that appearances are often deceptive.

A Strange Wrestling Match Summary In Hindi

विजय सिंह एक प्रसिद्ध पहलवान था। पर शेखी मारना, विजय सिंह की कमजोरी थी।
एक दिन वह बाजार में बैठा दूध पी रहा था। उसको घेरे कई नौजवान खड़े थे। अचानक उसने डींग मारी, ”लोग भूतों से क्यों डरते हैं ? मैं नहीं डरता। काश मुझे कोई ताकतवर भूत मिले !”

A Strange Wrestling Match In Hindi
इस प्रकार, उसने किसी मजबूत भूत से मिलने की इच्छा व्यक्त की। एक व्यक्ति ने उसे बताया कि भूतहा मरुस्थल में भूत आजादी से घूमते हैं। वे यात्रियों को लूट लेते हैं और उनकी हत्या कर देते हैं। विजय सिंह भयभीत हो गया। उसे लगा कि उसकी शेखी ने उसे एक भद्दी परिस्थिति में पहुँचा दिया है। परन्तु बाहरी तौर पर उसने परियों वाली वैसी (झूठी) कहानियों में अविश्वास दिखाया।

विजय सिंह को बताया गया था कि जैसलमेर वाली सड़क पर, एक कुरूप काली चट्टान से परे भूतहा मरुस्थल है। विजय सिंह ने भूतहा मरुस्थल में जाकर भूत से मुलाकात करने का मन में संकल्प किया। समूचे गाँव ने उसे विदा किया। एक बूढी महिला ने उसे एक छोटा लिफाफा दिया। विजय सिंह जानता था कि वह औरत सनकी नहीं बल्कि बड़ी बुद्धिमान थी। उसके उपहार ने, बाद में उसे भूत को डराने में बड़ी मदद की। विजय सिंह ने चलना प्रारंभ किया। सूर्यास्त के समय वह मरुस्थल में पहुँच गया। चांदनी रात थी। कुरूप, काली चट्टान अभी भी कुछ मील की दूरी पर थी।

A Strange Wrestling Match Summary In Hindi
रात घनी (गहरी) हो चुकी थी। विजय सिंह ने बुढी महिला का लिफाफा खोला। उसमें नमक का एक ढेला और एक अण्डा था। विजय सिंह ने भूतहा मरुस्थल में कदम रखा। उसे एक आवाज सुनाई पड़ी जो उसे उसके नाम से पुकार रही थी। आवाज ने कहा कि वह उसका मित्र नटवर है। आवाज़ ने बताया कि वह मरुस्थल में गुम हो जाएगा। विजय सिंह ने नटवर से कहा कि उसके नजदीक आए और उसे मार्ग दिखाए। वास्तव में विजय सिंह अपने शत्रु का सही-सही अनुमान लगाना चाहता था। हर अच्छा पहलवान लड़ने से पहले ऐसा ही करता है।

भूत उपस्थित हो गया। विजय सिंह ने भूत से कहा कि उस (नटवर) से मिलने की उसकी (विजय सिंह की) बड़ी इच्छा थी। फिर उसने कहा कि वह तो सिर्फ एक सीधा सा झूठा भूत है। उसकी अपमानजनक बातों को सुनकर भूत दंग रह गया। प्रायः उसे देखकर लोग डर के मारे पीछे हट जाते थे।

Strange Wrestling Match Summary
भूत ने निष्कर्ष निकाला कि विजय सिंह भावनाहीन प्राणी था। उसे यह ज्ञान नहीं था कि विजय सिंह उससे मिलने के लिए क्यों लालायित था। विजय सिंह ने उसे एक मूर्ख भूत कहा। वह अन्य व्यक्तियों के विचारों को भी नहीं समझ सकता था।

विजय सिंह ने भूत को बताया कि किसी भूत से कुश्ती करने की उसकी उत्कट इच्छा है। इस बात ने भूत को अवाक् कर दिया। वह सोच भी नहीं सकता था कि कोई आदमी कभी उसे कुश्ती के लिए चुनौती देगा। भूत ने उसकी शक्ति का अनुमान लगाया। उसने कहा, “विजय सिंह, आप मुझे उतने तगड़े नजर नहीं आते हो।” विजय सिंह ने भूत को बताया कि वह, उसे अपनी शक्ति दिखा देगा। भूत पर मनोवैज्ञानिक विजय पाने के इरादे से उसने । कहा कि शकले प्रायः धोखा दे जाती हैं।