Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9

These Chapter 9 Mechanical Properties of Solids are prepared by our panel of highly experienced teachers keeping in mind the level of preparation needed by the students to prepare for Class 11 Notes Physics. Class 11 Physics notes cover all the important topics that are listed. It gives students a basic understanding of the past and the development of laws in physics. https://meritbatch.com/mechanical-properties-solids-cbse-notes-class-11-physics/

Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9

Mechanical Properties Of Solids Class 11 Notes
• Inter molecular Force

In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way that each molecule is acted upon by the forces due to the neighbouring molecules. These forces are known as inter molecular forces.
• Elasticity
The property of the body to regain its original configuration (length, volume or shape) when the deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity.
• The change in the shape or size of a body when external forces act on it is determined by the forces between its atoms or molecules. These short range atomic forces are called elastic forces.
• Perfectly elastic body
A body which regains its original configuration immediately and completely after the removal of deforming force from it, is called perfectly elastic body. Quartz and phospher bronze are the examples of nearly perfectly elastic bodies.
• Plasticity
The inability of a body to return to its original size and shape even on removal of the deforming force is called plasticity and such a body is called a plastic body.
Mechanical Properties Of Solids
• Stress

Stress is defined as the ratio of the internal force F, produced when the substance is deformed, to the area A over which this force acts. In equilibrium, this force is equal in magnitude to the externally applied force. In other words,
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 1
• Stress is of two types:
(i) Normal stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface of the body. Normal stress is of two types: tensile stress and compressive stress.
(ii) Tangential stress: When the elastic restoring force or deforming force acts parallel to the surface area, the stress is called tangential stress.
Class 11 Physics Chapter 9 Notes
• Strain

It is defined as the ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or shape. It has no dimensions, it is just a number.
Strain is of three types:
(i) Longitudinal strain: If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain produced in the body is called longitudinal strain or tensile strain. It is given as:
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 2
(ii) Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone, the strain produced in the body is called volumetric strain. It is given as:
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 3
(iii) Shear strain: The angle tilt caused in the body due to tangential stress expressed is called shear strain. It is given as:
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 4
• The maximum stress to which the body can regain its original status on the removal of the deforming force is called elastic limit.
• Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that, within elastic limits, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain produced is a constant. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity. Thus
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 5
• Stress Strain Curve
Stress strain curves are useful to understand the tensile strength of a given material. The given figure shows a stress-strain curve of a given metal.
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 6
• The curve from O to A is linear. In this region Hooke’s Proportional limit law is obeyed.
• In the region from A to 6 stress and strain are not . proportional. Still, the body regains its original dimension, once the load is removed.
• Point B in the curve is yield point or elastic limit and the corresponding stress is known as yield strength of the material.
• The curve beyond B shows the region of plastic deformation.
• The point D on the curve shows the tensile strength of the material. Beyond this point, additional strain leads to fracture, in the given material.
Mechanical Properties Of Solids Class 11
• Young’s Modulus

For a solid, in the form of a wire or a thin rod, Young’s modulus of elasticity within elastic limit is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. It is given as:
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 7
• Bulk Modulus
Within elastic limit the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress and volumetric strain. It is given as:
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 8
– ve indicates that the volume variation and pressure variation always negate each other.
• Reciprocal of bulk modulus is commonly referred to as the “compressibility”. It is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure.
• Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shear strain.
Modulus of rigidity is given by
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 9
Class 11 Physics Mechanical Properties Of Solids Notes
• Poisson’s Ratio

The ratio of change in diameter (ΔD) to the original diameter (D) is called lateral strain. The ratio of change in length (Δl) to the original length (l) is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 10
• Elastic Fatigue
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming forces.
• Relations between Elastic Moduli
For isotropic materials (i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions), only two of the three elastic constants are independent. For example, Young’s modulus can be expressed in terms of the bulk and shear moduli.
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 11
• Breaking Stress
The ultimate tensile strength of a material is the stress required to break a wire or a rod by pulling on it. The breaking stress of the material is the maximum stress which a material can withstand. Beyond this point breakage occurs.
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 12
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 13
Hence, the elastic potential energy of a wire (energy density) is equal to half the product of its stress and strain.
• IMPORTANT TABLES
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 14
Mechanical Properties of Solids Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 9 Img 15

The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Class 10 Notes History Chapter 2

The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 2 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 10 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Class 10 History Chapter 2 Notes. According to new CBSE Exam Pattern, MCQ Questions For Class 10 Social Science with Answers Carries 20 Marks. https://meritbatch.com/cbse-class-10-social-science-history-the-nationalist-movement-in-indo-china-notes/

Formulae Handbook for Class 10 Maths and Science

Board CBSE
Textbook NCERT
Class Class 10
Subject Social Science Notes
Chapter History Chapter 2
Chapter Name The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China
Category CBSE Revision Notes

The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 2

The Nationalist Movement In Indo-China Notes
INDO-CHINA:

Comprises of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia — French colony.

History Chapter 2 Notes Class 10
Views of Paul Bernard:

Paul Bernard was an influential writer and policy-maker who strongly believed that the purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits.

  • According to him, the development of economy will raise the standard of people and people would buy more goods. The market would consequently expand, leading to better profit for French business.
  • According to him, there were several barriers to economic growth in Vietnam, such as large population, low agricultural productivity and extensive indebtedness.
  • To reduce the poverty and increase agricultural productivity, it was necessary to carry out land reforms.
  • Industrialization was also essential for creating more jobs as agriculture was not likely to ensure sufficient employment opportunities.

Class 10 History Chapter 2 Notes
Ho Chi Minh Trail:

  • The trail symbolizes how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to great advantage.
  • The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads was used to transport men and material from North to South.
  • It was improved in late 1950s and from 1967 about 20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month. The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way.
  • Mostly supplies were carried by women porters on their backs or on their bicycles.
  • The US regularly bombed this trail to disrupt supplies but efforts to destroy this important supply line by intensive bombing failed because they were rebuilt very quickly.

Notes Of History Class 10 Chapter 2
Influence of Japan:

In 1907-08, around 300 students from Vietnam went to Japan to acquire modem education.

  1. The primary objective was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow the puppet emperor and reestablish the Nguyen dynasty that had been deposed by the French. For this, they needed foreign help.
  2. Japan had modernized itself and had resisted colonization by the West. It had defeated Russia in 1907 and proved its military strength. The Vietnamese nationalists looked for foreign arms and help and appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians.
  3. Vietnamese students established a branch of Restoration Society in Tokyo but, in 1908, the Japanese Ministry of Interior clamped down on them. Many, including Phan Boi Chau, were deported and forced to seek exile in China and Thailand.

History Class 10 Chapter 2 Notes
Scholars Revolt, 1868:

It was an early movement against French control and spread of Christianity. It was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power. There was an uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where the Catholic missionaries had been active in converting people to Christianity since the early 17th century. By the middle of the 18th century, nearly 3,00,000 people had got converted. This had angered the people of these provinces and led to the uprising. Though this uprising was crushed by the French, it had inspired the people of other regions to rise against the French colonialism.

History Chapter 2 Class 10 Notes
Hoa Hao Movement:

It began in 1939 and gained popularity in Mekong delta area. The founder of Hoa Hao was Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure, opposition to the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium had a wide appeal. The French tried to suppress the movement led by Huynh Phu So and declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze and put him in a mental asylum. Interestingly, the doctor, who had to certify him insane, became his follower and finally, in 1941, the French doctors declared that he was sane. The French authorities exiled him to Laos and sent his many followers to concentration camps.

Chapter 2 History Class 10 Notes
Major problems in the field of education for the French in Vietnam:

  1. The French needed an educated local labor force, but they feared that once the Vietnamese got educated, they may begin to question colonial domination.
  2. French citizens living in Vietnam (called ‘colons’) feared that they might lose their jobs as teachers, shopkeepers, policemen to the educated Vietnamese. So they opposed the policy of giving the Vietnamese full access to French education.
  3. Elites in Vietnam were still powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. So the French carefully and systematically dismantled the traditional Vietnamese education system and established French schools for the Vietnamese.
  4. In the battle against French colonial education, schools became an important place for political and cultural battles. Students fought against the colonial government’s efforts to prevent the Vietnamese from qualifying for white-collared jobs.
  5. There was a protest in Saigon Girls School on the issue of racial discrimination. The protest erupted when a Vietnamese girl sitting in the front row was asked to move back to allow a local French student to occupy the front seat. The girl refused and was expelled along with other students who protested. The government was forced to take the expelled students back in the school to avoid further open protests.

The Nationalist Movement In Indo-China
‘Rat Hunt’:

  1. The modem city of Hanoi got infested with rats in 1902 and was struck by bubonic plague. The large sewers in the modem part of the city served as breeding grounds for rats.
  2. To get rid of the rats, a ‘Rat Hunt’ was started. The French hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught. This incident taught the Vietnamese the first lesson of collective bargaining. Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found that if they came together they could negotiate a higher bounty.
  3. They also discovered innovative ways to profit from the situation. The bounty was paid when a tail was given as a proof that a rat had been killed. So the rat catchers began clipping the tails and releasing the rats, so that the process could be repeated over and over again.
  4. Defeated by the resistance of the Vietnamese, the French were forced to scrap the bounty programme. Bubonic plague swept through the area in 1903 and in subsequent years. In a way, the rat menace marks the limits of French power and contradiction in their civilizing mission.

Nationalist Movement In Indo China Class 10
U.S. entry into the war:

  • US entry into the war proved costly to the Vietnamese as well as to Americans. The phase of struggle with the US was brutal.
  • From 1965-1972, many (over 403100) US personnel served in Vietnam out of which 7484 were women. Many died in battle and a large number of people were wounded.
  • Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks backed by most powerful bombers of the time—B52s. The widespread attacks and use of chemical weapons — Napalm, Agent Orange and Phosphorous bombs destroyed many villages and decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.

Class 10 History Chapter 2 Notes Pdf
Effect of the US involvement on life within the US:

Most of the people were critical of the government’s policy of war. When the youths were drafted (forced recruitment) for the war, the anger grew. Compulsory service in the armed forces could be waived only for university graduates. US media played a major role in both supporting and criticizing the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war. (Example: John Wayne’s Green Berets; 1968). Other films were more critical.
(Example: John Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now 1979 reflected the moral confusion that the war caused in the US).

Ch 2 History Class 10 Notes
Role of women:

  • In the 1960s, photographs in magazines and journals showed women as brave fighters. There were pictures of women militia shooting down planes. Women were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated.
  • Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers. They were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.
  • Many women joined the resistance movement. They helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground rooms and tunnels and fighting the enemy.
  • Of the 17,000 youth who worked on the trail, 70 to 80 per cent were women.

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Nationalism in India Class 10 Notes History Chapter 3

Nationalism in India Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 3 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 10 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given Nationalism in India Class 10 History Chapter 3 Notes. According to new CBSE Exam Pattern, MCQ Questions For Class 10 Social Science with Answers Carries 20 Marks. https://meritbatch.com/cbse-class-10-social-science-history-nationalism-in-india-notes/

Formulae Handbook for Class 10 Maths and Science

Board CBSE
Textbook NCERT
Class Class 10
Subject Social Science Notes
Chapter History Chapter 3
Chapter Name Nationalism in India
Category CBSE Revision Notes

Nationalism in India Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 3

Nationalism In India Class 10 Notes
Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Satyagraha:

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 from South Africa. Gandhiji’s novel method of mass agitation is know as ‘Satyagraha’. Satyagraha emphasized truth. Gandhiji believed that if the cause is true, if the struggle is against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. A satyagrahi can win the battle through non-violence. People, including oppressors, had to be persuaded to see the truth. Truth was bound to ultimately triumph.

In India the first was at Champaran in 1916 to inspire plantation workers to struggle against oppressive plantation system. In 1917 Satyagraha at Kheda to support peasants.

Class 10 Nationalism In India Notes
In 1918 Satyagraha at Ahmadabad:

Among the cotton mill workers.

‘Hind Swaraj’:
The famous book written by Mahatma Gandhi, which emphasized non-cooperation to British rule in India.

Nationalism In India Notes
New economic situation created in India by the First World War:

  1. Manchester imports into India declined as the British mills were busy with war production to meet the needs of the army paving the way for the Indian mills to supply for the huge home market
  2. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs. As a result new factories were set up, new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hrs.
  3. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically after the war, as it was unable to modernize and compete with US, Germany, Japan. Hence within colonies like India, local industrialists gradually consolidated their position capturing the home market.

Notes Of Nationalism In India
The Rowlatt Act of 1919:

It gave the British government enormous power to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Notes Of Nationalism In India Class 10
Jallianwala Bagh incident:

On 13th April 1919, a crowd of villagers who had come to attend a Baisakhi fair, gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh. Being from outside the city, many were not aware of the martial law that had been imposed as a repressive measure. General Dyer with his British troops entered the park and closed the only exit point without giving any warning to the assembled people and ordered the troops to fire at the crowds, killing hundreds. This brutal act of General Dyer provoked unparalleled indignation. As the news of Jallianwala Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many North Indian towns. There were hartals, clashes and attacks on government buildings.

Non-cooperation programme was adopted at Nagpur in Dec. 1920.

Class 10 History Chapter 2 Notes
Effects of the Non-cooperation Movement on the economy of India:

Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed and foreign cloth was burnt. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921-1922. Its value dropped from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. Many merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. People began discarding imported clothes and wearing Indian ones. The production of Indian textile mills and hand looms went up. Use of khadi was popularized.

Class 10 History Nationalism In India Notes
Non-cooperation Movement in the countryside:

  • In Awadh, the peasants’ movement led by Baba Ramchandra was against talukdars and landlords who demanded extremely high rents and a variety of other ceases from the peasants. Peasants were forced to work in landlords’ farms without any payment (beggar). Peasants had no security of tenure, thus being regularly evicted so that they could acquire no right over the leased land. The demands of the peasants were— reduction of revenue, abolition of beggar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
  • In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s against the closure of forest areas by the colonial government, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits. They felt that their traditional rights were being denied.
  • For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed. It meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave tea gardens without permission. In fact the permission was hardly granted. When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities and left for their homes.

Slowing down of Non-cooperation Movement in cities:

  • Khadi cloth was more expensive than mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. As a result they could not boycott mill cloth for too long.
  • Alternative Indian institutions were not there which could be used in place of the British ones.
    These were slow to come up.
  • So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

Nationalism In India Class 10 Summary
Khilafat movement:

Khilafat movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi and the Ali Brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali in response to the harsh treatment given to the Caliph of Ottoman empire and the dismemberment of the Ottoman empire by the British.

Class 10 History Chapter 2 Nationalism In India Notes
Chauri Chaura incident:

In February 1922, Gandhiji decided to launch a no tax movement. The police opened fire at the people who were taking part in a demonstration, without any provocation. The people turned violent in their anger and attacked the police station and set fire to it. The incident took place at Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh.

When the news reached Gandhiji, he decided to call off the Non-cooperation movement as he felt that it was turning violent and that the satyagrahis were not properly trained for mass struggle.

Swaraj Party was founded by C.R. Das and Moti Lai Nehru for return to council Politics. Simon Commission 1928 and boycott. Lahore Congress session and demand for Puma Swaraj in 1929. Dandi march and the beginning of civil Disobedience movement.
Features of Civil Disobedience Movement:

  • People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British but also to break colonial laws.
  • Foreign cloth was boycotted and people were asked to picket liquor shops.
  • Peasants were asked not to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
  • Students, lawyers and village officials were asked not to attend English medium schools, colleges, courts and offices.

Class 10 History Chapter 3 Notes
‘Salt March’:

On 31st January, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands, one of which was the demand to abolish Salt Tax. Salt was one of the most essential food items consumed by the rich and poor alike and a tax on it was considered an oppression on the people by the British Government. Mahatma Gandhi’s letter was an ultimatum and if his demands were not fulfilled by March 11, he had threatened to launch a civil disobedience campaign. So, Mahatma Gandhi started his famous Salt March accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by Swaraj and urged them to peace-fully defy the British. On 6th April, he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Nationalism In India Class 10 Pdf Notes
Who participated in the movement?

Civil Disobedience Movement came into force in various parts of the country. Gandhiji led the salt march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with his followers starting the Civil Disobedience Movement. In the countryside, the rich Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. As rich communities were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices, they became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Merchants and industrialists supported the movement by giving financial assistance and also by refusing to buy and sell the imported goods. The industrial working class of Nagpur region also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Railway workers, dock workers, mineral of Chhota Nagpur, etc. participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns.

Notes On Nationalism In India
Limits of the movement

less participation by untouchables—Ambedker for separate electorate and Poona pact of 1932, Luke warm response by some Muslim Political Organization.

Provisions of Poona pact of 1932:
Signed between Dr. Ambedkar and Gandhiji. It gave depressed classes reserved seats in central provincial councils but they were to be voted by the general electorate.

Nationalism In India Class 10 Notes Pdf
The sense of collective belonging:

Though nationalism spread through the experience of united struggle but a variety of cultural processes captured the imagination of Indians and promoted a sense of collective belonging:

  1. Use of figures or images: The identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as an evidence of one’s nationalism
  2. Indian folklore: Nationalists started recording and using folklore’s and tales, which they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces. So preservation of these became a way to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of price in one’s past.
  3. Use of icons and symbols in the form of flags: Carrying the tricolor flag and holding it aloft during marches became a symbol of defiance and promoted a sense of collective belonging.
  4. Reinterpretation of history: Indians began looking into the past to rediscover the glorious developments in ancient times in the field of art, science, mathematics, religion and culture, etc. This glorious time was followed by a history of decline when India got colonized, as Indian history was miserably written by the colonizers.

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Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6

These Chapter 6 Work, Energy and Power are prepared by our panel of highly experienced teachers keeping in mind the level of preparation needed by the students to prepare for Class 11 Notes Physics. Class 11 Physics notes cover all the important topics that are listed. It gives students a basic understanding of the past and the development of laws in physics. https://meritbatch.com/work-energy-power-cbse-notes-class-11-physics/

Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6

Work Energy And Power Class 11 Notes
• Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain distance in the direction of applied force.
It is measured by the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force, i.e., W = F-S
• If an object undergoes a displacement ‘S’ along a straight line while acted on a force F that makes an angle 0 with S as shown.
The work done W by the agent is the product of the component of force in the direction of displacement and the magnitude of displacement.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 1
• If we plot a graph between force applied and the displacement, then work done can be obtained by finding the area under the F-s graph.
• If a spring is stretched or compressed by a small distance from its unstretched configuration, the spring will exert a force on the block given by
F = -kx, where x is compression or elongation in spring, k is a constant called spring constant whose value depends inversely on unstretched length and the nature of material of spring.
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the spring force is opposite to x, the displacement of the free-end.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 2
• Energy
The energy of a body is its capacity to do work. Anything which is able to do work is said to possess energy. Energy is measured in the same unit as that of work, namely, Joule.
Mechanical energy is of two types: Kinetic energy and Potential energy.
Work Energy Power Class 11 Notes
• Kinetic Energy

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as its kinetic energy.
For an object of mass m and having a velocity v, the kinetic energy is given by:
K.E. or K = 1/2 mv 2
• Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or condition is known as its potential energy.
There are two common forms of potential energy: gravitational and elastic.
—> Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.
It is given by
(U)P.E. = mgh
where m —> mass of a body
g —> acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth. h —> height through which the body is raised.
—> When an elastic body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is needed to be done against the restoring elastic force. The work done is stored up in the body in the form of its elastic potential energy.
If an elastic spring is stretched (or compressed) by a distance Y from its equilibrium position, then its elastic potential energy is given by
U= 1/2 kx2
where, k —> force constant of given spring
• Work-Energy Theorem
According to work-energy theorem, the work done by a force on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 3
• The Law of Conservation of Energy
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of an isolated system does not change. Energy may be transformed from one form to another but the total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
• Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed.
• Besides mechanical energy, the energy may manifest itself in many other forms. Some of these forms are: thermal energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, visual light energy, nuclear energy etc.
• Equivalence of Mass and Energy
According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter-convertible. That is, mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 4
• Collision
Collision is defined as an isolated event in which two or more colliding bodies exert relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time.
Collision between particles have been divided broadly into two types.
(i) Elastic collisions (ii) Inelastic collisions
Work Energy And Power Notes
• Elastic Collision

A collision between two particles or bodies is said to be elastic if both the linear momentum and the kinetic energy of the system remain conserved.
Example: Collisions between atomic particles, atoms, marble balls and billiard balls.
• Inelastic Collision
A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of the system remains conserved but its kinetic energy is not conserved.
Example: When we drop a ball of wet putty on to the floor then the collision between ball and floor is an inelastic collision.
• Collision is said to be one dimensional, if the colliding particles, move along the same straight line path both before as well as after the collision.
• In one dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of approach before collision is equal to. the relative velocity of separation after collision.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 5
Coefficient of Restitution or Coefficient of Resilience
Coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation after collision to the relative velocity of approach before collision.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 6
Work Power Energy Class 11 Notes
• Elastic and Inelastic Collisions in Two Dimensions

Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 7
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 8
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 9
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 10
Class 11 Physics Ch 6 Notes
• Non-conservative Forces

A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done in moving from one point to another depends upon the the path followed.
Let W, be the work done in moving from A to B following the path 1. W2 through the path 2 and W3 through the path 3. Fig. (i).
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 11
Examples of non-conservative forces are :
(i) Force of friction (ii) Viscus force
Low of conservation of energy holds goods for both conservative and non-conservative forces.
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 12
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 13
Work, Energy and Power Class 11 Notes Physics Chapter 6 Img 14

The French Revolution Class 9 Notes History Chapter 1

The French Revolution Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 1 SST Pdf free download is part of Class 9 Social Science Notes for Quick Revision. Here we have given The French Revolution Class 9 History Chapter 1 Notes. https://meritbatch.com/the-french-revolution-class-9-notes/

The French Revolution Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 1

French Revolution Class 9 Notes
After analysis of the previous 3 years’ examination papers, it is concluded that the following topics are the most important concepts from this chapter and should be focussed upon.

  • The outbreak of the French Revolution
  • Changes after Revolution
  • Classes of French Societies
  • Facts about Napoleon, the former emperor of France.

The French Society during the Late 18th Century-
The French Society comprised :
1st Estate: Clergy
2nd Estate: Nobility
3rd Estate: Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, peasants, artisans, landless laborers, servants, etc.

Some within the Third Estate were rich and some were poor.

The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the Third Estate alone.

Class 9 History Chapter 1 Notes
The Struggle for Survival:
Population of France grew and so did the demand for grains. The gap between the rich and poor widened. This led to subsistence crises.

The French Revolution Class 9 Notes
The Growing Middle Class:
This estate was educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. These ideas were put forward by philosophers such as Locke the English philosopher and Rousseau the French philosopher. The American Constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example of political theories of France. These ideas were discussed intensively in salons and coffee houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were even read aloud.

The French Revolution Class 9 Notes Pdf
The Outbreak of the Revolution

The French Revolution went through various stages. When Louis XVI became the king of France in 1774, he inherited a treasury which was empty. There was growing discontent within the society of the Old Regime.

1789: Convocation of Estates General. The Third Estate forms National Assembly, Tennis Court Oath the Bastille is stormed, peasant revolts in the countryside, Assembly issues Declaration of the Rights of Man.

Class 9 French Revolution Notes
1791:
A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee the basic right to all human beings.

1792-93: Convention abolishes Monarchy; France becomes a republic. The Jacobin Republic overthrown, a Directory rules France.

1795: New Constitution is adopted. A new Convention appointed a five-man Directorate to run the state from 26th October 1795. Churches reopened.

1799: The Revolution ends with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon’s coup abolishes Directory and establishes Consulate.

Time Line: The French Revolution

History Chapter 1 – Class 9 Notes
1770s-1780s: Economic decline:
French Government in deep debt. In 1774, Louis XVI ascends to the throne.

1788-1789: Bad harvest, high prices, food riots.

1789, May 5: Estates-General convened, demands reforms.

1789, July 14: National Assembly formed. Bastille stormed on July 14. French Revolution starts.

1789, August 4: Night of August 4 ends the rights of the aristocracy, the surrender of feudal rights.

1789, August 26: Declaration of the Rights of Man

1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy nationalizes the Church.

Class 9th History Chapter 1 Notes
1791:
Dissolution of the National Constituent Assembly.

1792: Constitution of 1791 converts absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy with limited powers.

1792: Austria and Prussia attack revolutionary France, Robespierre, elected the first Deputy for Paris to the National convention.

1793: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed.

French Revolution Notes Class 9
1792-1794:
In 1793, the Reign of Terror starts. Austria, Britain, the Netherlands, Prussia, and Spain are at war with France.

Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety repels back foreign invaders.

Executes many ‘enemies of the people’ in France itself.

1794: Robespierre is executed. France is governed by a Directory, a committee of five men. The Reign of Terror ends.

1795: National convention dissolved.

1799: Napoleon Bonaparte becomes the leader of the French Revolution ends.

History Class 9 Chapter 1 Notes
Women’s Revolution

  • From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events which brought about so many changes in French society.
  • Most of the women of the third estate had to work for a living.
  • Their wages were lower than those of men.
  • They demanded equal pay for equal work.
  • In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and newspapers.
  • One of their main demands was that women must enjoy the same political rights as men.
  • Some laws were introduced to improve the position of women.
  • Their struggle still continues in several parts of the world.
  • It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

French Revolution Notes
The Abolition of Slavery

  • There was a triangular slave trade among Europe, Africa, and America.
  • In the 18th century, there was little criticism of slavery in France.
  • No laws were passed against it.
  • It was in 1794 that the convention made free to all slaves.
  • But 10 years later slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon.
  • It was finally in 1848 that slavery was abolished in the French colonies.

Notes Of History Class 9 Chapter 1
The Revolution and Everyday Life

  • The years following 1789 in France saw many changes in the lives of men, women, and children.
  • The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice.
  • One important law that came into effect was the abolition of censorship.
  • The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the 19th century.

History Chapter 1 Class 9 Notes
Napoleon

  • In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France.
  • He set out to conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family.
  • He saw his role as a modernizer of Europe.
  • He was finally, defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

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India Size and Location Class 9 Notes Geography Chapter 1

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India Size and Location Class 9 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 1

India Size And Location Class 9 Notes
The following topics from this chapter are being highlighted the most in the previous 3 year’s examinations and thereby hold significant importance.

An important point is that only factual questions have been asked from this chapter (Very Short Answer Type).

For example, the latitudinal and longitudinal extension of India, neighbouring countries of India etc.

  • Location of India
  • Size of India
  • India and the World
  • Neighbours of India.

Class 9 Geography Chapter 1 Notes
Location

India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.

India’s mainland extends between 8°4’N and 37°6’N latitudes, and 68°7’E and 97°25’E longitudes.

The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) divides India into two almost equal parts.

The northernmost point of India which is under Indian administration is near Indira Col, Siachen Glacier.

The southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Nicobar Island.

Geography Class 9 Chapter 1 Notes
Size

Covering an area of 3.28 million square kilometres, India’s total area is 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world.

India is the world’s seventh largest country with a land boundary of about 15,200 km, with total length of the coastline being 7,516.6 km.
India’s East-West extent appears to be smaller than the north-south extent.

Class 9th Geography Chapter 1 Notes
India and The World

The Indian landmass is centrally located between West and East Asia.

India’s protruding Deccan Peninsula helped India to establish close contacts with West Asia, Africa and Europe, South-East and East Asia.

India’s contacts with the world via land routes are much more than Its maritime contacts.

India has contributed a lot to the world in forms of ideas, philosophies (Upanishads, Ramayana, Panchtantra) and in mathematics (Indian numerals and decimal system, algebra, trigonometry and calculus).

In exchange, India’s architecture was influenced by Greek sculpture and architectural styles from West Asia.

Geography Chapter 1 Class 9 Notes
India’s Neighbours

India has an important position in South Asia and has 29 States and 7 Union Territories.

India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Bhutan.

The southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, namely Maldives and Sri Lanka.

India stands apart from the rest of Asia and is called a sub-continent.

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History and Sport: The Story of Cricket Class 9 Notes History Chapter 7

CBSE NotesCBSE Notes Social ScienceNCERT Solutions Social Science

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History and Sport: The Story of Cricket Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 7

History And Sport The Story Of Cricket
The present chapter deals with how the history of cricket was connected to the social history of the time. It shows the evolution of cricket as a game in England and discuss the wider culture of physical training and athleticism of the time. It will then move to the history of the adoption of cricket in our country.

Class 9 History Chapter 7 Notes
The Story Of Cricket
Cricket was invented in England and became intimately linked to the culture of 19th century-Victorian society. The game was expected to represent all that England valued; fair play, discipline and gentlemanliness. With the British, cricket spread to the colonies. It was supposed to uphold the values of Englishness also. The colonial masters assumed that only they could play the game as it ought to be played in its spirit.

The game of cricket thus got linked up closely with the politics of colcnialism and nationalism. Within the colonies of the British, the game had a complex history. It was connected to the politics of caste and religion, community and nation. The emergence of cricket as a national game was the result of many decades of historical development.

Cricket grew out of the many stick-and-ball games played in England 500 yeirs ago, under a variety of different rules. The word ‘bat’ is an old English word thal simply means stick or club.

By the 17th century, cricket had envolved enough to be recognisable as a distinct game. Till the middle of the 18th century, bats were roughly the same shape ashockey sticks, curving outwards at the bottom. There was a simple reason for this, the ball was bowled underarm, along the ground so the curve at the end of the bat j£ve the batsman the best chance of making contact.

The Story Of Cricket Class 9
The Historical Development Of Cricket As A Game In England
The social and economic history of England in the 18th and 19th centuries shaped the game and gave it a unique nature. For instance, a Test match of cricket can go on for five days and still end in a draw. No other modern team sport takes even half as much time to complete.

The length of the pitch is specified i.e. 22 yards but, the size and shape of the ground is not specified. Grounds can be oval, like Adelaide, or nearly circular, like Chepauk in Chennai. A six at the Melbourne Cricket Ground needs to clear much more ground than a Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi. Both these strange aspects consist a historical reason.

History And Sport The Story Of Cricket Class 9 Notes Pdf
Laws of Cricket

The first written Laws of Cricket were drawn up in 1774. These laws stated that ‘the principals shall choose the gentlemen from amongst present two umpires who shall, absolutely decide all disputes. The stumps must be 22 inches high and bail across them 6 inches. The ball must be between 5 to 6 ounces and the two sets of stumps should be 22 yards apart’. There was no limits on the shape or size of the bat.

Changes in Cricket Laws by Marylebone Cricket Club.
The world’s first cricket club was formed in Hambledon in 1760s and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787. In 1788, MCC published the first revision of the laws and became the guardian of cricket’s regulations.

The MCC revision of the laws brought in a series of changes in the game that occurred in the second half of the 18tl century. During the 1760s and 1770s, it became mmmon to pitch the ball through the air, rather than rollit along the ground. It opened new possibilities for pace, spin and swing for the bowlers.

The weirht of the ball was limited between 5-10 ounces ind the width of the bat to 4 inches. In 1774, the first leg-before law was published and three days had become the length of a major match.

History Of Cricket Class 9
Changes in Cricket During 19th Century

Many important changes occurred during the 19th century. They were

  • The rule about wide balls was applied
  • The exact circumference of the ball was specified
  • Protective equipment like pads and gloves became available
  • Boundaries were introduced. Previously all shots had to be run
  • Over-arm bowling became illegal.

Cricket as a Reflection of Past and Present
The game of cricket matured during the early phase of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. This history has made cricket a game with characteristics of both past and present. Cricket’s connection with a rural past can be seen in the length of a Test match and the uncertainity about the size of a cricket ground. Even after boundaries were written into the laws of cricket, their distance from the wicket was not specified. Originally, cricket matches did not have time limit.

Modern factory work meant that people were paid by the hour or the day or the week. That’s why games like football and hockey were strictly time-limited so that time should be limited to fit the routines of industrial city life.

Technological Changes in Cricket Equipments
The cricket has changed with changing time and it also remained true to its origins in rural England. Cricket’s most important tools like bat, ball, stumps, bails all are made of natural, pre-industrial materials. The material of bat changed slightly over time. But cricket has refused to make its tools with man-made materials, like, plastic, fibre glass, metal, etc.

In the matter of protective equipment, cricket has been influenced by technological change. The invention of vulcanised rubber led to introduction of pads in 1848 and protective gloves soon afterward. Also, helmets made of metal and synthetic lightweight materials were introduced.

Cricket and Victorian England
The organisation of cricket in England reflected the nature of English society. The rich, who could afford to play it for pleasure, were called amateurs and the poor, who played it for a living, were called professionals. The wages of professionals were paid by patronage or subscription or gate money.

Gentlemen and the Players
The game was seasonal and it did not offer employment for the whole year. Thus, professionals worked as miners or in other forms of working class employment. The social superiority of amateurs was built into the customs of cricket. Amateurs were called Gentlemen, while professionals were called Players. They even entered the playground from different entrances.

Amateurs tended to be batsman, leaving the energetic, hardworking aspect of the game, like fast bowling to the professionals. That is why the laws of the game always gave the benefit to the batsman. Cricket is a batsman’s game because its rules were made to favour ‘Gentlemen’. The social superiority of the amateur was also the reason that the captain of a cricket team was traditionally a batsman. Captain of teams, whether club teams or nationals sides were always amateurs. It was not till the 1930s that the English team was led by a professional, the Yorkshire batsman, Len Hutton.

Introduction of Crickter to Boys School
It is often said that the ‘Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton’. It means that Britain’s military success was based on the values taught to school boys in its public schools. Eton was the most famous of these school. The English boarding school was the institution that trained English boys for careers in the three great institution of imperial England (i.e. the Military, Civil service and the Church).

By the beginning of 19th century, educationist like Thomas Arnold (founder of the modern public school system) saw team sport like, cricket and rugby as not just outdoor game, but as a way of teaching English boys the discipline, the importance of hierarchy, the skills, the codes of conduct and the leadership qualities that helped them to build the British empire properly.
Cricket helped the English Elite by glorifying the amateur ideal, where cricket was played not for victory or profit but for its own sake in the spirit of game.

English ruling class believed that they won the wars due to- the superior characters of its young men, built in boarding schools, playing gentlemanly games like cricket that tipped the balance.

Sports for Girls
Till the end of the 19th century, sports and vigorous exercise for girls were not a part of their education in Britain. Croquet which was a slow-pace, elegant game considered suitable for women, especially of the upper class. By the 1890s, schools began acquiring playgrounds and allowing girls to play some, of the games which were earlier considered as male games.

The Spread Of Cricket
Some English team games like hockey and football became international games but cricket remained a colonial game. It was only played in the countries that were once had been part of British empire. In the colonies, cricket was established as a popular sport either by white settlers or by local upper classes who wanted to copy their colonial masters. In colonies, playing cricket became a sign of superior social and racial status.

The Afro-Caribbean population of the countries in the West Indies was discouraged from participating in organized club cricket. This remained dominated by white plantation owners and their servants.

The first non-white club in the West Indies was established towards the end of tie 19th century and its members were the light-skinned Mulattos. The blacks played informal cricket on beaches, in back alleys and parks.

Cricket became hugely popular in the Caribbean. Success at cricket became a measure of racial equality and political progress. When the West Indies wot! its First Test Series against England in 195C, it was celebrated as a national achievement.

Ironies of the Victory
The following points state ironies of this victory
It was a way of demonstrating that West Indians were the equals of white Englishmen.
The winning West Indies team was captained by a white player. The first time a black player, Frank Worrell led the West Indies Test team in 1960.

The West Indies cricket team represented not one nation but several dominions that later became independent countries.

Cricket, Race, and Religion
In colonial India, cricket was organised on the principle of race and religion. The first record of cricket being played in India is 1721. It was played as a recreational sport by English sailors in Cambay.

The first Indian club, the Calcutta Cricket Club was established in 1792. Through the 18th century, cricket in India was only played by British military men and civil servants in all white clubs and gymkhanas.

The first Indian community to start playing the game was the small community of Zoroastrians, the Parsis in Bombay.
The Parsis came into close contact with the British because of their interest in trade and this was the first Indian community to westernize. They founded the first Indian cricket club, the Oriental cricket club in Bombay in 1848.

History of Gymkhana Cricket
Parsi clubs were funded and sponsored by Parsi businessmen like the Tatas and the Wadias. There was a quarrel between the Bombay Gymkhana (a whites-only club) and Parsi cricketers over the use of a public park. So the Parsis built their own gymkhana to play cricket.

A Parsi team beat the Bombay Gymkhana at cricket in 1889, just four years after the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Indian National Congress was an organisation which had early leaders, like the great Parsi statesman and intellectual Dadabhai Naoroji.

The establishment of the Parsi Gymkhana became precedent for other Indians, who in turn established clubs based on the idea of religious community.

By the 1890s, Hindus and Muslims were busy gathering funds and support for a Hindu Gymkhana and an Islam Gymkhana. The history of gymkhana cricket led to first-class cricket being organised on communal and racial lines. The teams that played colonial India’s greatest and most famous tournaments represents religious communities.

Quadrangular and Pentangular Tournaments
The first-class cricket tournament was called the Quadrangular as it was played by four teams, the Europeans, the Parsis, the Hindus and the Muslims. Later, the Quadrangular became the Pentangular when a fifth team, viz the Rest was added. The Rest was comprised of all the communities left over. For example, Vijay Hazare, a Christian, played for the Rest. By the late 1930s and early 1940s, journalists, cricketers and political leaders had begun to criticise the racial and communal foundations of the pentangular tournament.

The distinguished editor of the Bombay Chronicle, S A Brelvi, radio commentator, A F S Talyarkhan and India’s most respected political leader like Mahatma Gandhi, were against the Pentangular as a communally divisive competition. It was played at the time when nationalists were trying to unite India.

A rival first-class tournament on regional lines, the National Cricket. Championship (later named the Ranji Trophy), was established but was not able to replace Pentangular tournament. It was present until independence but colonial tournament died with their rule.

Caste and Cricket
Palwankar Baloo was born in Poona in 1875. He was the greatest Indian slow bowler of his time. He played for the Hindus in the Quadrangular tournament. Despite being their greatest player he was never made captain of the Hindus because he was born as a Dalit.

His younger brother, Vithal was a batsman. He became captain of the Hindus in 1923 and led the team to a famous victory against the Europeans.

‘The Hindus’ brilliant victory was due more to the judicious and bold step of the Hindu Gymkhana in appointing Mr Vithal as a captain of the Hindu team. The moral that can be safely drawn from the Hindus’ magnificent victory is that removal of Untouchability would lead to swaraj, which is the prophecy of Mahatma Gandhi.

The Modern Transformation Of The Game
Tests and One-day Internationals (ODIs), played between national teams dominate modern cricket. The players who become famous, who live on in the memories of cricket’s public, are those who have played for their country. The players are remembered by Indian fans from the era of the Pentangular and the Quadrangular tournaments.

CK Nayudu is popularly remembered as an outstanding Indian batsman. He became India’s first Test Captain and played for India in its first test match against England in 1932.

The entry of Indians to Test Cricket
India entered the world of Test cricket in 1932. This was possible because Test cricket from its origins in 1877 was organised as a contest between different parts of the British empire, not sovereign nations.

The first Test was played between England and Australia when Australia was still a white settler colony, not even a self-governing dominion. Similarly, the small countries of the Caribbean that together make up the West Indies team were British colonies after the Second World War.

Mahatma Gandhi and Colonial Sport
Mahatma Gandhi believed that sport was essential for creating a balance between the body and the mind. He often emphasised that games like cricket and hockey were imported into India by the colonial masters and were replacing our traditional games.
Games like cricket, hockey, football. and tennis were expensive games, so these were meant for the privileged only. Gandhiji suggested that these games showed a colonial mindset and were a less effective education than the simple exercise of those who worked on the land.

Decolonization and Sport
Decolonization is the process through which different parts of European empires became independent nations. It began with the independence of India in 1947 and continued for the next half of century. This process led to the decline of British influence in trade, commerce, military affairs, international politics and sports matter.

Even after the disappearance of the British colonies, the regulation of international cricket remained the business of the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC). In 1965, the ICC renamed the International Cricket Conference. But it was dominated by its foundation members, England and Australia which had the veto power. After 1989, the privileged position of England and Australia was taken away.

The colonial flavour of world cricket during 1950s and 1960s can be seen from the fact that England, Australia and New Zealand continued to play Test cricket with South Africa, a racist state where a policy of racial segregation is practiced. Test-playing nations like India, Pakistan and the West Indies boycotted South Africa. English cricket authorities canceled a tour by South Africa only in 1970 after the increasing political pressure to boycott the racist state.

Commerce, Media And Cricket Today
The 1970s was the decade, in which cricket was transformed. It was notable for the exclusion of ‘Racist’ South Africa from international cricket. Year 1971 was a landmark year because the first One-Day International was played between England and Australia in Melbourne. In 1975, the first World Cup was staged successfully. In 1977, cricket was changed forever by a businessman.

World Series Cricket
Kerry Packer, an Australian television tycoon saw the money-making potential of cricket as a televised sport. He signed up fifty-one of the world’s leading cricketers against the wishes of the National Cricket Botrds and for about two years staged unofficial Tests and one-day internationals under the name of World Series Cricket. It was described as Packer’s circus.

Kerry Packer made cricket more attractive to television audiences which changed the nature of the game. Coloured dress, protective helmets, field restrictions, cricket under lights, became a standard part of the post-Packer game. Packer gave the lesson that cricket was a marketable game, which could generate huge revenue. Cricket boards became rich by selling television rights to television companies.

Television and Expansion of Cricket
Television channels made money by selling sports to television companies. The continuous television coverage made cricketers celebrities. The cricketers made larger sums of money by making commercials for wide range of products, from types to Colas, on television.

Television coverage changed cricket. It expanded the audience for the game by beaming cricket into small towns and villages. The technology of satellite television and the worldwide reach of multi-national television companies created a global market for cricket.

Since India had the largest viewership and market for the game, the game’s center of gravity shifted to South Asia. This shift was symbolized by the shifting of the International Cricket Council (ICC) headquarters from London to tax-free Dubai. The center of gravity in cricket has shifted away from the old Anglo-Australian axis to subcontinental teams like India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Conclusion
One hundred and fifty years ago, the Parsis, the first Indian cricketers struggled for an open space to play cricket. Today, Indian players are the best-paid, most famous cricketers in the game. The factors behind this transformation are the replacement of the gentlemanly amateur by the paid professional, the triumph of the one-day game in place of Test cricket and the remarkable changes in global commerce and technology. In this way a colonial sport became the most popular game in our country.

Cricket was invented in England and it was assumed that the game ought to be played in its true spirit. Hence, it was linked up closely with politics of colonialism and nationalism, caste, religion and community.

Cricket had evolved as a different game by 17th century. Ball was bowled underarm and till middle of the 18th century bats were of same shape as hockey sticks.

Cricket was shaped by the social and economic history of England in the 18th and 1 j)th century.

Length of the pitch is specified as 22 yards; but shape and size of the ground is not fixed.

The laws of cricket were codified in 1774. Stumps 22 inches high, bail 6 inches, ball 5 to 6 ounces but shape or size of bat not specified.

Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787. In 1788 it published the first revision of the laws and became the guardian of cricket’s regulations.

Cricket as a game is connected with both past and present. The past is reflected in the length of cricket match, size of cricket grounds, no time limit etc.

The organization of cricket in England reflected the nature of English society. The rich played for pleasure and were called amateurs and the poor played for living were called professionals.

Amateurs were called gentlemen while”professionals were called players. Amateurs were batsman hence rules of cricket were in favor of Batsman.

Educationist like Thomas Arnold saw sports like cricket, rugby as not just outdoor game but as source of discipline, skills, code of conduct and leadership quality.

Girls were only allowed to play slow pace and elegant game until! 1890, after which they played games earlier considered as male games.

The cricket remained a colonial game, as playing cricket became a superior social and racial status. The Afro-Caribbean population discouraged from participating in organised club cricket.

Cricket became so popular in Caribbean that success in cricket became a measure of racial equality and political progress.

Cricket was organised on the principle of race and religion. The Calcutta Cricket Club was first Indian club established in 1792. The Oriental Cricket Club, established by Parsis in 1848, was the first Indian Cricket Club.

The Parsis team beat the Bombay Gymkhana in 1889.

The first class cricket tournament was called Quadrangular (Europeans, Parsis,Muslims and Hindus), later it became Pentangular when a fifth team Rest was added.

The division of cricket tournament was condemned by respected leaders including Mahatma Gandhi, for being communally divisive.

Modern cricket is dominated by test and One Day Internationals.

India played first test rhatch against England in 1932.

The impact of decolonisation process was also reflected in cricket as after 1989 privileged position of England and Australia was scrapped.

South Africa was excluded from international cricket because of prevailing racialism.

First International One Day match was pldyed between England and Australia in 1971 at Melbourne.

Kerry Packer realised the money making .potential of cricket, as a televised sport and made it more. popular and attractive with coloured dress, protective helmets, crickets under light, etc!

The technology of satellite television created a global market for cricket.

Since India had the longest viewership, the game center of gravity shifted to South Asia.

International Cricket Council (ICC) headquarters shifted from London to Dubai.

Colonial sport cricket became the most popular game in our country.

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Drainage Class 9 Notes Geography Chapter 3

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Drainage Class 9 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 3

Drainage Class 9 Notes
In the previous 3 years’ examinations, significant importance has been given to the following topics from this chapter.

  • Drainage Patterns
  • Various River Basin System
  • Pollution of Rivers.

Drainage’ is a term signifying the river system of an area.

A drainage basin or river basin is an area w’hich is drained by a single river system.

An upland that separates two drainage systems that are next to each other is called a water divide.

On the basis of origin, there are two river systems of India — The Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.

Himalayan rivers are rainfed and snowfed, so they have w?ater in them throughout the year, i.e., they are perennial and thus navigable.

Himalayan rivers create meanders, oxbow lakes and other depositional features on their course.

Peninsular rivers are seasonal; mostly depending on rainfall and thus non-navigable.

Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the Western Ghats and flow’ towards the Bay of Bengal.

Class 9 Geography Chapter 3 Notes
The Himalayan Rivers

A river along with its tributaries may be called a river system.

The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra.

Drainage Notes Class 9
The Indus River System

Rising near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, the Indus enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir.

Rivers Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum join Indus near Mithankot, Pakistan and flow southwards to fall into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.

With a total length of 2,900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers of the world.

Class 9 Drainage Notes
The Ganga River System

The headwaters of the Ganga are called ‘Bhagirathi’.

Bhagirathi is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the Alaknanda at Devprayag.

Ganga meets the tributaries from the Himalayas such as Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and the Yamuna.

A major river Yamuna, arising from Yamunotri Glader in the Himalayas, joins Ganga at Allahabad.

Other tributaries — Chambal, Betwa and Son — come from Peninsular uplands to join Ganga.

Ganga is joined by the Brahmaputra and flows through Bangladesh to reach the Bay of Bengal.

The delta formed when the Ganga and the Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of Bengal is known as the Sunderban Delta.

The length of the Ganga is over 2,500 km and it develops large meanders.

Geography Chapter 3 Class 9 Notes
The Brahmaputra River System

Originating in Tibet, very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj, Brahmaputra enters India in Arunachal Pradesh and flows to Assam, joined by many tributaries.

The tributaries that join the Brahmaputra are Dibang, Lohit, and Kenula.

The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam to form many riverine islands.

Unlike other north Indian rivers, the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed, causing the riverbed to rise.

Geography Class 9 Chapter 3 Notes
The Peninsular Rivers

The major rivers of the peninsula—Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri—flow eastwards to drain into the Bay of Bengal.

The Thai and Narmada are the only rivers which flow west to make estuaries and drain into the Arabian Sea.

The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively small in size.

Drainage Chapter Class 9 Notes
The Godavari Basin

The Godavari begins in Nasik district of Maharashtra. It is the largest peninsular river.

Its large basin covers most parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

The tributaries which join the Godavari include Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Wainganga and Penganga.

Because of its length and the area, it covers, the Godavari is also known as the Dakshin Ganga.

The Godavari drains into the Bay of Bengal.

Notes Of Drainage Class 9
The Mahanadi Basin

The Mahanadi, a 860 km long river, rises in Chhattisgarh to flow through Orissa to reach the Bay of Bengal.

Principal tributaries of Mahanadi river are Sheonath, Jonk, Hasdeo, Mand, lb, Ong and Tel.

Mahanadi river basin is shared by Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.

Is is one of the major east flowing peninsular rivers draining into Bay of Bengal.

Class 9th Geography Chapter 3 Notes
The Krishna Basin

The 1,400 km long Krishna river rises from a spring in the Mahadev range near Mahabaleshwar and falls into the Bay of Bengal.

The tributaries of Krishna include Bhima, Musi, Ghatprabha, Koyana and Tungabhadra. The Krishna basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Ncert Class 9 Geography Chapter 3 Notes
The Narmada Basin

Rising in the Amarkantak Plateau of Maikala Range, Narmada flows to create a gorge in marble rocks of Madhya Pradesh.

Narmada flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. •

Narmada river has 41 tributaries. The important ones are: Barna, Ganjal, Chhota Tawa, Hiran, Janatara, Kolar, Orsang, Sher.

Class 9 Geography Chapter 3 Drainage Notes
The Tapi Basin

Originating in Betul, Madhya Pradesh, the Tapi flows through a basin that covers Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

The main west flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharatpuzha and Periyar.

The entire Tapi basin can be divided into three sub-basins: upper, middle and lower and into two well- defined physical regions, viz, the hilly regions and the plains or Tapi Basin.

Class 9 Geography Chapter 3 Notes Pdf
The Kaveri Basin

Originating in the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats, the Kaveri reaches the Bay of Bengal at Kaveripatnam, sharing its basin with Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Puducherry or Pondicherry.

The main soil types found in the basin are red and yellow soils.

Class 9 Chapter 3 Geography Notes
Lakes

Most lakes are permanent while others contain water only during the rainy season.

Some lakes are the result of the glacial action and ice sheets and some may have been formed by wind, river action and human activities.

A river meandering across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later develop into oxbow lakes.

Glacial lakes are formed when glaciers dig out a basin which is later filled with snowmelt.

Some lakes like Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir result from tectonic activity.

Apart from natural lakes, the damming of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has also led to the formation of lakes.

Lakes help to regulate river water flow, prevent flooding, aid to develop hydel power, moderate climate, maintain aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, develop tourism and provide recreation.

Drainage Notes
Role of Rivers in the Economy

Rivers are a natural source of water. It forms the main backbone for agriculture.

Settlements on the river banks have developed into cities.

Rivers are used for irrigation, navigation, hydropower generation, all vital for India, and agricultural economy.

Class 9 Geo Ch 3 Notes
River Pollution

Quality of river water is affected by the growing domestic, municipal, iftdustrial and agricultural demand.

A heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents are emptied into the river affecting the river’s self-cleansing property.

Concern over rising pollution in our rivers led to the launching of various action plans to clean the rivers like Narmada Bachao Movement.

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Peasants and Farmers Class 9 Notes History Chapter 6

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Peasants and Farmers Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 6

Class 9 History Chapter 6 Notes
This chapter deals with peasants and farmers of three different countries i.e. the small cottages in England, the wheat farmers of the USA and the opium producers of Bengal (India). The comparison between the histories of different places shows how these histories are different even though some processes are similar.

Peasants And Farmers Class 9 Notes Pdf
The Time Of Open Fields And Common Land In England
The agricultural system of England changed dramatically over the late 18th and the early 19th century. Before this time, in large parts of England, the countryside was open. The lands were not enclosed or partitioned by the landlords. Peasants cultivated on strips of land around the village they live in. At the beginning of each year, people were allocated a number of strips to cultivate at the public meeting. These strips were located at different places and vary in quality.

Peasants And Farmers Class 9 Notes
Benefits of Common Land

Beyond enclosures lands lay the common land. Due to this, it was ensured that everybody gets a mix of good and bad land. Everybody had access to the common land.

On this land, villagers grazed their cattle and collected fuelwood for fire. They also gathered berries and fruits for food. They fished in the rivers and ponds and hunted rabbits in common forests. For the poor, the common land was essential for survival as it helped them to overcome bad times when crops failed.

Peasant And Farmers Class 9 Notes
Wool Production and Enclosures

In the 16th century, the price of wool went up in the world market. Rich farmers wanted to expand wool production, thus they began dividing and enclosing common lands to allow improved breeding of sheep. They prevented the poor from entering the enclosed lands. After the mid—18th century, the enclosure movement swept through the countryside to fulfill the increasing demand for food grains due to the industrialization. Between 1750 and 1850, 6 million acres of land was enclosed. The British Parliament passed 4000 Acts legalizing these enclosures.

Enclosure The fencing of once common land to bring it into private ownership, in England between 16th to the 18th century.
Common land A piece of land over which everyone had customary rights of collecting fruits, firewood, grazing, and even fishing.

Peasants And Farmers Class 9 Pdf
New Enclosures for Grain Production

The new enclosures became a sign of a changing time. In the old enclosures of the 16th century promoted sheep farming but 1 new enclosure of the late 18th century was for grain production. From the mid-18th century, the English population expanded four times. This meant an increased demand for foodgrains to feed the population. During this period, Britain was industrializing. Thus, more and more people began to live and work in urban areas.

Impact of Migration and War on Enclosure Men from rural areas migrated to towns in search of jobs. To survive they had to buy foodgrains in the market. As the urban population grew, the market for foodgrains expanded. When demand increased rapidly, foodgrain prices rose.

By the end of the 18th century, France was at war with England. This broke trade and the import of foodgrains from Europe. Prices of foodgrains in England became very high, encouraging landowners to enclose lands and enlarge the area under grain cultivation. Landowners pressurized the Parliament to pass the Enclosure Acts.

Labour And Peasant Class Issues
The Age of Enclosures

In earlier times, rapid population growth was followed by a period of food shortages. Foodgrain production in the past had not expanded as rapidly as the population. From the mid -19th-century grain production grew as quickly as population. In 1868, England was producing almost 80% of the food it consumed and the rest was imported.

This increase in foodgrain production was made possible by innovations in agricultural technology and ‘ by bringing new lands under cultivation. Landlords divided pasturelands, and carved up open fields, cut up forest commons, took over marshes and turned larger areas into agricultural fields.

Class 9th History Chapter 6 Notes
Innovation In Agriculture
In the late 17th century, farmers continued to use simple innovation in agriculture. In the 1660s, farmers in many parts of England began growing turnip and clover, instead of leaving the land fallow.

They started practicing crop rotation to increase soil fertility. They soon discovered that planting these crops improved the soil and made it more fertile. Turnip was moreover, a good fodder crop relished by cattle. So farmers began cultivating turnips and clover regularly. These crops became part of the cropping system. Later findings showed that these crops had the capacity to increase the nitrogen content of the soil. Now enclosures were seen as necessary to make long-term investments on land and plan crop rotations to improve the soil.

Class 9 Peasants And Farmers Notes
Effect of Enclosures on the Poor

Enclosures allowed only the landlords to make more profit. But for the poor, life became hard. They could no longer collect firewood, fruits, and berries or graze their cattle or hunt small animals for meat. It was due to fences which made enclosed land the exclusive property of the landowner. Enclosure happened on a big scale in the Midlands and the countries around from which the poor were displaced.

The poor found that their customary rights started gradually disappearing. From the midlands, they moved to the Southern counties of England in search of work. Earlier, the labourers lived with their landlords. They helped their masters and worked for them throughout the year. By 1800, this practice was disappearing. Landowners tried to increase their profit. Thus, they cut the amount they had to spend on their labourers. ‘ The labourers were employed only during the harvest time. For a large part of the year, the poor had no work.

The Introduction of Threshing Machines
During the Napoleonic Wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers expanded their production largely. The landlords began buying the new threshing machines to reduce dependence on labourers. A single machine could do the work of more than 20 labourers.

The loss of livelihood forced the poor to oppose the introduction of threshing machine. The Captain Swing riots spread in the countryside at this time. The threshing machines had became a sign of bad times for the poor. After the Napoleonic Wars, thousands of soldiers returned, who needed alternative work to survive.

At that time, grain started flowing into England from Europe and the prices declined, so the landowners began reducing the area under grain cultivation. Thus, an Agricultural Depression set in. They tried to cut the wages and number of labourers they needed.

Protest and Government Actions
In England during 1830s, farmers received threatening letters of not using threshing machines that remove workmen of their livelihood. Some farmers found their barn and haystack reduced to ashes by fire at night. Most of the letters were signed in the name of Captain Swing. It was a mythic name used in these letters. Landlords feared attacks by armed groups at night and many destroyed their own machines. The government took severe actions on these riots. The suspects of the riots were arrested.

Conclusion on Modern Agriculture in England Many changes was introduced with the coming of modern agriculture in England. The open fields disappeared and the customary rights of peasants were removed.

The poor left their villages in large numbers while the richer farmers expanded grain production and made profits. They became powerful. The income of labourers became unstable, their jobs insecure and their livelihood dependent on others.

Bread Basket Of The World
Modern agriculture developed in the USA and it became the breadbasket of the world. At the time, when common fields were being enclosed in England at the end of the 18th century, settled agriculture had not developed on any extensive scale in the USA. At that time, forests covered over 800 million acres and grasslands (prairies) 600 million acres. Most of the landscape was not under the control of white Americans. Till the 1780s, white American settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land in the East.

At that time there were various Native American groups. Several of them were nomadic, some were settled. Still, others were expert trappers through whom European traders had secured their supplies of beaver fur since the 16th century.
By the early 20th century, this landscape had transformed radically. White Americans had moved Westward and controlled up to the West coast by displacing local tribes and transformed the whole landscape into agricultural fields.

The Westward Move of White Americans and Wheat Cultivation
Many native Americans lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing, others cultivated corn, beans, tobacco and pumpkin. After the American War of Independence (1775 to 1783) and the formation of the United States of America, the white Americans began to move Westward.

In 1800, over 700000 white Americans had moved on to the Appalachian plateau through the passes. They had the idea that wilderness of forests could be turned into cultivation fields. Forest timber could be cut for export, animals hunted for skin, moutains mined for gold and minerals. For this, the American Indians had to be cleared from the land. After 1800, the US government took a policy of driving the American Indians Westward, first beyond the river Mississippi and then further West.

Displacement of Local Tribes and Settlement
To displace local tribes was not an easy task. Many wars were waged in which Indians were massacred and many of their villages burnt. They were forced to sign treaties, give up |! their lands and move Westward. The settlers poured in as the Indians retreated. The white Americans settled on the Appalachian plateau by the first decade of the 18th-century and then moved into the Mississippi valley between 1820 and 1850.

Wherever the White American settlers went, they slashed and burnt the forests and cleared the land for cultivation. They ploughed the land and sowed corn and wheat. After the 1860s, the Great Plains across the River Mississippi became a major wheat-producing area of America. Timber for houses was not available in this area. Settlers in the area began clearing the grasslands and made sod houses to live in.

The Wheat Farmers of USA
From the late 19th century, there was a great expansion of wheat production in the USA. The urban population was [ growing and the export market was becoming bigger. With I the increasing demand for grain, prices also increased and encouraged the farmers to produce more. The spread of railways also made it easier for exporting the grain. By the early 20th century, the demand became even higher.

The demand of wheat further increased during the First ; World War, when Russian supply of wheat was cut off. The US President Wilson called upon the farmers to plant more wheat. He said ‘Plant more wheat, i.e. wheat will win the war’.
In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in the USA was I under wheat production. After 9 years, the area had expanded to 74 million acres, an increase of about 65%.In the USA, a new class was emerged-The Wheat Barons who controlled as much as 2000 to 3000 acres of land individually.

The Coming of New Technology
The expansion of wheat production was made possible by 1 new technology. In the 19th century, as the settlers moved into new habitats and new lands, they modified their implements to meet their requirements.

When they entered prairie grasslands, their traditional tools became ineffective as prairie was covered with a thick
mat of grass with tough roots. To break the sod and turn the soil, a variety of new ploughs were devised. Some of them were about 12 feet long.

In the early 20th century, farmers were breaking the ground with tractors and disk ploughs, clearing vast stretches for wheat production. Before the 1830s, the grain used to be harvested with a cradle or sickle.
The new machines allowed big farmers to rapidly clear large tracts, break up the soil by removing the grass and prepare the ground for cultivation. With power-driven machinery, 4 men could plough effect seed and harvest 2000 to 4000 acres of wheat in a season.

Effect of New Technology on the Poor
Machines brought misery for the poor. Many poor farmers bought machines by taking loans from the banks. They hoped the wheat prices would bring high profits and they would pay their debts back. But it did not happen due to the war. Production expanded during the war and unsold stock piled up. Wheat prices fell and the export market collapsed. The vast amount of wheat and corn turned into animal feed. This created great Agrarian Depression of the 1930s.

Those poor farmers who borrowed money found it difficult to pay back their loan. Many of them left their farms and looked for a job elsewhere.

USA Became Dust Bowl
The expansion of wheat production in the USA created other problems.
Farmers slashed and burnt forests indiscriminately, uprooted all vegetation, which had deep roots in the Earth. As trees and grasses were cut, there was no rains year after year and the temperature increased. The tractors had broken the soil into dust. The whole region had become a dust bowl.

In the 1930s, terrifying duststorm began to blow over the Southern plains. The wind blew with great speed. Black blizzards rolled in, sometimes 7000 to 8000 feet high. It looked like monstrous waves of muddy water.

Through the 1930s, these duststorms came day after day and year after year. People were blinded and choked, cattle were suffocated to death, sand covered fields and coated the surfaces of the rivers till fishes died. Dead bodies of birds and animals were all over the landscape.

The Trade With China
The story of British trade with China and the history of opium production in India are interlinked. In the late 18th century, the English East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in England.

As tea became a popular English drink, the tea trade became more and more important. In 1785, about 15 million pounds of tea were being imported into England.

By 1830, the figure had jumped to over 30 million pounds. In fact, the profits of the East India Company came to depend on the tea trade.

The problem of English Hembants with Chin, England at this time produced nothing that could be easily sold in China. The Confucian rulers of China, the Manchus, were suspicious of all foreign merchants.

The Manchus were unwilling to allow the entry of foreign goods. In such a situation, Western merchants found difficulty in financing the tea trade.

They could buy tea only by paying in silver coins or bullion. This meant an outflow of treasure from England, a prospect that created widespread anxiety. It was believed that a loss of treasure would make the nation poor and deplete its wealth. Merchants, therefore, looked for ways to stop this loss of silver.

They searched for a commodity they could sell in China, something they could persuade the Chinese to buy Opium was such a commodity.

Opium as a Medium of Exchange
The Portuguese had introduced opium into China in the early 16th century. Opium was, however, known primarily for its medical properties and used in very small quantities for certain types of medicines.

The Chinese were aware of the dangers of opium addiction and the Emperor had forbidden its production and sale except for medicinal purposes. But Western merchants in the mid—18th century began an illegal trade in opium. It was unloaded in a number of sea ports of South-Eastern China and carried by local agents to the interiors.

While the English cultivated a taste for Chinese tea, the Chinese became addicted to opium. People of all classes took to the drug. As China became a country of opium addicts, British trade in tea flourished. The returns from opium sale financed the tea purchases in China.

Opium Cultivation in India
When the Britisher conquered Bengal, they made a determined effort to produce opium in the lands under their control.
As the market for opium expanded in China, larger volumes of opium flowed out of Bengal ports. Before 1767, no more than 500 chests (of two maunds each) were being exported from India. Supplies had to be increased to feed this booming export trade. By 1870, the government was exporting about 50000 chests annually from Bengal to China.

Unwilling Cultivators Made to Produce Opium
Indian farmers were not willing to grow opium in their lands for the following reasons

  • First, opium had to be grown on the best land, on fields that lay near villages and well manured.
  • Second, many cultivators owned no land, so they had to pay rent and lease land from the landlords.
  • Third, the cultivation of opium is a long and difficult process.
  • Finally, the price the government paid to the cultivators for the opium they produced was very low. It was unprofitable for cultivators to grow opium at that price.

Unwilling cultivators were made to produce opium through a system of advances. In Bengal and Bihar, there were a large number of poor peasants, who found it difficult to survive. When the village headman (mahato) offered loans to produce opium, they took it hoping to repay it later. The government opium agents gave the money to the headman, who gave it as loan to the peasants.

By taking the loan, the peasants were forced to grow opium and hand over the product to the agents once the crop had been harvested. The prices given to the cultivators were very low. The British Government was not ready to increase the price of opium. They wanted to produce it at a cheap rate and sell it at a high price. The difference between the buying and selling price was the government’s opium revenue. But the peasants began agitating for higher prices and refused to take advances. They even sold their crop to traveling traders (pykars), who offered higher prices.

Monopoly and Conflict Over Opium Trade
By 1773, the British Government had established a monopoly to trade in opium. By the 1820s, the British found that opium production in their territories was rapidly declining, but its production outside the British territories was increasing. It was being produced in Central India and Rajasthan, within the Princely States that were not under British rule. In these areas, local traders were offering much higher prices and were controlling the opium trade to China.

The British Government considered this trade illegal and instructed its agents posted in the Princely States to seize all opium and destroy the crops. The conflict between the British Government, peasants and local traders continued as long as opium production lasted.

Conclusion
All sections of rural people were not affected in the same way. Some gained and others lost. The history of modernization was not only a glorious story of growth and development. It was also a story of displacements and poverty, ecological crises and social rebellion, colonization, and repression. We need to look at these variations and strands to understand the diverse ways in which peasants and farmers confronted the modern world.

The coming of modern agriculture in England created many problem for small farmers and labourers.

In protest to the modern agriculture, they started setting fire on haystack and barn, destroying threshing machine.

Before advent of modern agriculture, land were not enclosed and peasants cultivated on stripes of land allocated to them in public meeting.

Beyond enclosures land, lied the common land where villagers grazed their cattle and collected fuel wood for fire.

Wool production gained importance in 16th century. So, rich farmer enclosed the land preventing entry of poor farmers to expand wool production.

Though the enclosure movement was slow in the early of 18th century later on there was a fanatic effort to enclose land.

The new enclosure was for grain production whereas old enclosures were for sheep farming.

Migration to urban areas, due to industrialisation raised the demanct of foodgrain and thus its prices. Foodgrains prices further increased when trade was disrupted due to England-French war.

There was rapid increase in foodgrain production from mid-19th century, which was the result of radical innovation in agricultural technology and bringing of new lands under cultivation.

Farmers also used certain innovative methods like growing turnip and clover, practise of crop rotation etc.

During the Napoleonic wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers expanded their production and bought threshing machine.

After the Napoleonic wars, thousands of soilder returned who needed work, there was grain inflow into England from Europe, food prices declined, landlords reduced the area of cultivation which all led to the Agricultural Depression.

Development of Modern agriculture in USA made it the bread basket of the world.

With formation of the United States of America white Americans moved westward and drove away American – Indians (native settlers). This displacements lead to may wars.

In 19th century there was dramatic expansion in wheat production in USA. The export market grew bigger and rising prices encouraged farmers to produce more.

New technology the ploughs to break the sod and turn the soil, tractors, diskplough and the reaper invented by Cyrus McCormick helped improving wheat cultivation.

Machine brought misery for the poor, many took loans to buy machines and found it difficult to pay back.

After the First World War, demand of wheat reduced, stocks pilled up and all this lead to the great Agrarian depression of 1930s.

Indiscriminate cutting of trees, practice of slashing and burning of forest resulted in drought and soaring temperature in USA.

Soil turned into dust and the whole region became a dust bowl. Terrifying duststorm blew over the Southern plains year after year.

The American dream of land of plenty turned into a nightmare and the American realised that they had to maintain the ecological balance of each region.

After the Battle of Plassey (1757), to establish their rule in India, the British wanted to impose regular system of land revenue thus expanded area of cultivation.

Indigo and opium were two major commercial crops in 19th century and later on sugarcane, cotton, jute, wheat and several crops were also included to meet the growing demand in Europe.

The East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in England, paying in silver coins. But is was drying out the treasury of England, hence they started illegal trade in opium.

The opium in China came from farmlands of Bengal, where poor farmers were lured to grow opium by giving them advance loans through village headman (Mahato).

By 1773, the British Government had established a monopoly to trade in opium. But its production was also increasing outside British territory within the Princely States in Central India and Rajasthan. The local traders controlled the trade.

The British considered this trade illegal. The conflict between the British and local traders peasants continued as long as opium production lasted.

The history of modernization of agriculture was not beneficial for all. Some rural people gained and some lost.

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Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 Notes History Chapter 5

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Pastoralists in the Modern World Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 5

Pastoralists In The Modern World Class 9 Notes
Pastoralism has been important in societies like India and Africa for years. Pastoralism is a way of keeping animals such as cattle, sheep, that involves moving from one place to another to find water and food. Nomads are people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living.

Pastoralism In India Class 9
Movement Of Pastoral Nomads In Mountains
Mainly pastoral communities are found in mountainous regions.

Pastoralists In The Modern World Notes
Gujjar Bakarwals

Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are great herders of goat and sheep. Many of them migrated here in the 19th century in search of pastures for their cattle and settled here.

In winter, when the mountains were covered with snow, they lived with their herds in the low hills of Siwalik range. Here, the dry scrub forests provided pastures for their herds. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered Kashmir valley.

In summer, when the snow melted in the mountains and mountainsides were left lush green, they moved onto high levels. The variety of sprouted grass provided rich nutritious forage for their animals.

By the end of September, they used to start moving again for their downward journey back to their winter base. Several households came together for this journey forming a kafila.

Chapter 5 History Class 9 Notes
Mandaps of Ringal:

The Gujjar cattle herders live in the mandaps, made of ringal—a hill bamboo—and grass from the Bugyal. A mandap was also a workplace. Here, the Gujjar used to make ghee which they ‘ took down for sale. In recent years, they have begun to transport the milk directly in buses and trucks. These mandaps are at about 10,000 to 11,000 feet, as buffaloes cannot climb any higher.

Pastoralists In The Modern World
Gaddi Shepherds:

Gaddi shepherd is a pastoral community of Himachal Pradesh. They had a similar cycle of seasonal movements like Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir.

Class 9 History Chapter 5 Notes
Movement of Gaddi Shepherds:

During winter, Gaddi Shepherds grazed their flocks in scrub forests of the low hills of Siwalik range.

By April, they moved North and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. Further to the East, in Garhwal f and Kumaun, the Gujjar cattle herders came down to the dry forests of the bhabhar in the winter and went up to the high meadows-the bugyals in summer. Many of the Gujjar cattle herders were originally from Jammu and Kashmir and came to the uphills in the 19th century in search of good pastures.When the snow melted on the high mountains, they moved onto higher mountain meadows (dhars). By September, they began their return movement. On the way, they stopped once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop.

On the way down, they stop for a while to have their sheep sheared. The sheep are bathed and cleaned before the wool is cut valley near Palampur in Himachal Pradesh is one of the areas where shearing of wool is being done. Then, they further descend to their winter base the Siwalik hills.

Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris Many pastoralists of the Himalayas like the Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris also followed cyclic movement between summers and winters in search of pastures. They all had to adjust to seasonal changes and make proper use of available pastures. When the pasture was exhausted or unusable in one place, they moved their herds and flock to new areas. This continuous movement of the pastoralists allowed the pastures to recover.

Class 9th History Chapter 5 Notes
On The Plateaus, Plains And Deserts

The pastoral communities are also found in the plateaus, plains and deserts of India.

Pastoralism In Africa Class 9
Dhangars:

Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. In the early 20th century, their population was more than 4 lakhs. They were mainly shepherds, blanket weavers and buffalo herders. Dhangars stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. In the monsoon, this track became a vast grazing ground for their flocks.

By October, the Dhangars harvested the bajra and started to move towards West. After a month, reached. Konkan which had high rainfall and rich soil. Here, they were welcomed by the Konkani peasants.

After the harvest of the Kharif crop, the fields had to be fertilised and made ready for the rabi harvest. Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on the stubble. The Konkani peasants also gave supplies of rice which the shepherds took back to the plateau where grain was scarce.

With the onset of monsoon, they returned to their settlements on the dry plateau as sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.

The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas are the important pastoral communities of the dry central plateau of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets.

They lived near the forests, cultivated small patches of land, engaged in a variety of small trades and took care of their herds. The movement of these pastoralists depended on monsoon and dry season.

In the dry season, they moved to the coastal tracts and left when the rains came. Only buffaloes liked the swampy, wet conditions of the coastal areas during the monsoon months. Other herds had to be shifted to the dry plateau at that time.

History Class 9 Chapter 5 Notes
Movement Of Pastoral Nomads On The Plateaus, Plains And Deserts

Bhabhar A dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.
Bugyals Bugyals are vast natural pastures on the high mountains, above 12,000 feet. They are under snow in the winter and come to life after April. At this time, the entire mountainside is covered with a variety of grasses, roots and herbs. By monsoon, these pastures are thick with vegetation and carpeted with wild flowers. Kharif The autumn crop, usually harvested between September and October. Rabi The spring crop, usually harvested after March. Stubble Lower ends of grain stalks left in the ground after harvesting.

Pastoralists In The Modern World Class 9
Banjara Tribes

They were an important group of graziers, which were found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In search of good pasture land for their cattle, they moved over long distances. They sold their plough cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange of grain and fodder.

Pastoralist In Modern World Class 9 Notes
Ratios

They lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. Before 1947, they used to migrate to Sindh and grazed their animals on the banks of the Indus. But after partition, when Sindh became a part of Pakistan, this activity was restricted. Now, they started migrating to Haryana where sheep can graze on agricultural fields after the harvest. The rainfall in the region was less and uncertain. So, they combined cultivation with pastoralism.

During the monsoon, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October, when those grazing grounds were exhausted, they moved out in search of new pastures. They returned in their home villages during the next monsoon.

Pastoralists In The Modern World Class 9 Notes Pdf
Maru Raikas

One group of Raikas were known as Maru Raikas who reside in the Thar desert near Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Their settlement is called a dhandi. They herded camels and another group reared sheep and goat. Maru Raikas know the history of their community from a genealogist. The genealogist is the one, who recounts the history of tribes. Such oral traditions give pastoral groups their own sense of identity. These oral traditions can tell us about how a group looks at its own past.

Class 9 Chapter 5 History Notes
Camel Fairs

The camel fairs are held at different places of Rajasthan such as Pushkar, Balotra, etc. Camel herders come to the fair to sell and buy camels. The Maru Raikas also display their expertise in training their camels. Horses from Gujarat are also brought for sale at this fair.

Class 9 Social Science History Chapter 5 Notes
Factors that Contributed to the Movement of Pastoralists

The life of pastoral groups is not easy. It was sustained by careful consideration of a host of factors. They had to judge how long the herds could stay in one area and know where they could find water and pasture. They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that they could move through different territories.

Customary Rights Rights that are used by people by custom and tradition.
They had to set up a relationship with farmers on the way so that the herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil. They combined a range of different activities viz., cultivation, trade and herding to make their living.

Class 9 Pastoralists In The Modern World Notes
Colonial Rule And Pastoral Life

The Colonial Government made different laws from time to time which severely affected the lives of the pastoralists. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated, they had to pay high revenue, their agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were also affected adversely.

The colonial power believed that all grazing lands were wastelands because they were unproductive. These lands did not produce revenue or agricultural products. From the mid-19th century, Wasteland Rules were enacted in various parts of our country.


Wasteland Rules and Forest Acts

The government granted selected individuals various concessions and encouraged to settle them in these areas. Even some of them were made as headmen of villages. In most areas, the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists as their customary rights.

They believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and young shoots of trees that germinated on the forest floor. The herds crushed the saplings and munched away shoots. These prevented new trees to grow. The Forest Acts made by the British Government changed the lives of pastoralists. Some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared as ‘reserved’.

In the reserved forests, no pastoral activity was allowed and in the protected forests their activity was strictly restricted. In the protected forests, they needed a permit for entry. The permit specified the timing of their entry and departure. If they overstayed there, they were liable to fines.

Criminal Tribes Act
British officials were very suspicious of nomadic people. They wanted to rule over a settled population which could be easily identified and controlled. In 1871, the British Government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes.

They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. As a result of this act, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements and they were not allowed to move without a permit. The village police also kept a strict watch on them.

The imposition of Grazing Tax
In the mid—19th century, Grazing Tax was introduced by the British Government in most pastoral lands of India. In order to increase income, the government imposed tax even on animals.

The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of the collection was made increasingly efficient. In the decades between the 1850s and 1880s, the right to collect the tax was carried out by contractors. These contractors tried to extract high tax so that they could earn the profit. By the 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists.
Each of them was given a pass. The pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed in the pastures. To enter a grazing tract, the pastoralist had to show the pass and pay the tax.

Report by the Royal Commission on Agriculture
The Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928 reported that the extent of the area available for grazing has gone down tremendously with the extension of the area under cultivation because of increasing population, an extension of irrigation facilities, acquiring the pastures for government purposes, e.g. defence, industries and agricultural experimental farms. Now breeders find it difficult to raise large herds. Thus, their earnings have gone down. The quality of their livestock has deteriorated, dietary standards have fallen and indebtedness has increased.

Effects of Colonial Changes on the Lives of Pastoralists:
Wasteland Rules, Forest Acts, Criminal Tribes Act and the imposition of grazing tax affected the lives of pastoralists badly. The effects were

  • These measures led to the serious shortage of pastures as grazing lands were turned into cultivable land.
  • The shepherds and cattle herds could no longer freely graze their cattle in the forests.
  • Nomadic people had to move frequently from one place to another in search of pastures.
  • The animal stock declined as underfed cattle died in large numbers during scarcities and famines.

Ways by which Pastoralists Cope with the Changes Pastoralists coped up with the changes in a variety of ways

  • Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers.
  • Some discovered new pastures when a movement to old grazing grounds became difficult.
  • Over the years, some richer pastoralists began buying land and settling down, giving up their nomadic life.
  • Many poor pastoralists borrowed money from moneylenders to survive.
  • Some of them became labourers, working on fields or in small towns.
  • In spite of such difficulties, pastoralist communities still exist and are considered the most important form of life ecologically.

Pastoralism In Africa

Africa is a country where over half the world’s pastoral population lives. Even now, over 22 million Africans depend on some forms of pastoral activities for their livelihood.

The different pastoral communities of Africa are Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them lived in semi-arid grasslands where rainfed agriculture is difficult.

They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys. They sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some of them earn through trade and transport. Others combine pastoral activity with agriculture field and still, others do a variety of odd jobs.

The life of Maasai Community
The Maasai are nomadic and pastoral people who depend on milk and meat for subsistence. The title Maasai derives from the word ‘Maa’. Maai-sai means ‘My People’.

Before colonial rules, Maasailand stretched over a vast area from North Kenya to the steppes of Northern Tanzania. In the late 19th century, European imperial powers divided the region into different colonies.

After colonial rule, best grazing lands of Maasai community were gradually taken over for white settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.

By changing conditions, the Maasai were forced to agriculture. They started growing crops such as maize, rice, potatoes, cabbage. Maasai believed that tilling the land for crop farming is a crime against nature. Once you cultivate the land, it is no longer suitable for grazing.

Effects of Colonial Ryle on Naassi Community

Maasais Lost their Grazing Lands
From the late 19 th century, the British Colonial Government in East Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. The Maasai community lost about 60% of their land and were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.

In pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. By the end of colonial rule, the situation became the opposite. In 1885, Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.

They lost their grassing lands in the following ways

Large areas of grazing land were turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. The Serengeti National Park has created over 14,760 km of Maasai grazing land.

Without grass, livestock (cattle, goats and sheep) were malnourished, which meant less food available for families and their children.

The Kilimanjaro Water Project cuts through the communities of the area near Amboseli National Park. But the villagers are barred from using the water for irrigation or for livestock.

The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created a serious problem for the pastoralists. Feeding the cattle became a persistent problem due to the unavailability of enough grazing lands.

Effect of Closed Borders on Pastoralists
Pastoral groups were forced to live within the confines of special reserves. The boundaries of these reserves became the limits within which they could now move.

They were not allowed to move out with their stock without special permits. They were not even allowed to enter the markets in white areas. They were prohibited from participating in any form of trade.

The new territorial boundaries and restrictions imposed on them suddenly changed the lives of pastoralists. This adversely affected both their pastoral and trading activities. Earlier, pastoralists not only looked after animal herds but traded in various products. The restrictions under colonial rule did not entirely stop their trading activities but they were now subject to various restrictions.

Effect of Dried Pastures on Maasais
The Maasais were forced to live in semi-arid tracts prone to frequent drought. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought.

The colonial rules had unequal effects on elders and warrior groups of Maasai society. The Elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes.

The Warriors consisted of young people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. The Warrior class proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars.

The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. Thus, the traditional authority of both Elders and Warriors was negatively affected.

The chiefs appointed by the Colonial Government accumulated wealth over time. They had regular income with which, they could buy animals, goods and lands. They lent money to poor neighbours who needed it to pay taxes. They started to live in towns and involved in trades. Their family stayed back in villages to look after lands and animals. These rich chiefs managed to survive devastations due to war and drought.

The poor pastoralists did not have the resources to tide over bad times and thus, they were compelled to do odd jobs, like charcoal burners, workers in road and building construction, etc.

Rituals to become Maasai Warrior
Even today, Maasai young men go through an elaborate ritual before they become warriors, although actually it is no longer common. They must travel throughout the section’s region for about 4 months, ending with an event where they run to the homestead and enter with an attitude of a raider.

During the ceremony, boys dress in loose clothing and dance non-stop throughout the day. This ceremony is the transition into a new age. Girls are not required to go through such a ritual.

Kaokoland Herders of Namibia
In Namibia, in South-West Africa, the Kaokoland herders traditionally moved between Kaokoland and nearby Ovamboland and they sold skin, meat and other trade products in neighbouring markets. All this was stopped with the new system of territorial boundaries that restricted movements between regions.

In most places in colonial Africa, the police were given instructions to keep a watch on the movements of pastoralists and prevent them from entering white areas.

Conclusion
Pastoral communities in different parts of the world are affected in a variety of different ways by changes in the modern world. New laws and new borders affect the patterns of their movement.

They change the path of their annual movement, reduce their cattle numbers, press for rights to enter new areas. They exert political pressure on the government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and demand a right in the management of forests and water resources.

They are not people who have no place in the modern world. Environmentalists and economists have increasingly come to recognise that pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world.

Pastoralism is a way of keeping animals and moving from one place to another to find water and food.

Gujjar Bakarwals migrated in the 19th century to Kashmir crossing Pir Panjal. They shifted their grazing lands from highlands in summer to lower hills of Siwalik range in winter. They used to move to form kafila.

Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh like Gujjar Bakarwals used to come down to the dry forest of bhabhar in winter and went up to the high meadows of bugyals in summer.

Shearing of wool is being done at Uhl valley near Palampur in Himachal Pradesh.

To adjust to seasonal changes and make proper use of available pastures Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris also involved in cyclic movement between summer and winter.

Dhangars.of Central Plateau, Maharashtra were mainly shepherds, blanket weavers and buffalo herders. After harvesting bajra, they move towards Konkan to reap benefits of high rainfall and rich soil.

Gollas, Kurumas and kurubas are cattle herders of dry Central Plateau Qf Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Cyclic movement of Pastoralist communities in Plateaus, Plains and desert was defined by alteration of monsoon and dry season.

Banjara tribes were found in villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, who also moved over long distance in search of Pastures.

Raikas of Rajasthan had to combine cultivation with pastoralism when Sindh became part of Pakistan after 1947. Maru Raikas of Jaisalmer lived in a settlement called dhandi and know about their community from a genealogist.

Camel fairs were held in Pushkar, Balotra where Maru Raikas display their expertise in training camels.

Pastoralists had to set up a relationship with farmers and combined a range of different activities like cultivation, trade and herding.

Colonial Government considered that all grazing lands were unproductive. Hence, they categorised forest into the reserved forest (no pastoral activity allowed) and protected forest (permit system prevailed). These laws affected the customary rights of the traditional pastoralist.

Criminal Tribe Act of 1871 classified many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists as criminal tribes.

British Government introduced Grazing Tax, which was auctioned out to contractors.

The changes brought by laws of British Government reduced the available area for pastureland. Thus continuous grazing in the same piece of land degraded the quality of pasture.

To adapt to the changing circumstances, pastoralists reduced the number of cattle, discovered new pasture. Some even bought land and started settling down.

Pastoralism is still considered an ecologically most viable form of life.

Africa houses over half of the world’s pastoral population. Pastoral communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Tukana lived here.

The Maasai community lost about 60% of their land and were confined to arid zones due to colonial laws, even though they dominated in economic and political fields in the pre-colonial era.

Territorial boundaries and restrictions were imposed on Pastrolists and required the social permit to move out of it. For exp. Kaokoland herders of Namibia were severely affected by these territorial boundaries.

Maasai society was divided into Elders and Warriors.

Elders were ruling community who settled disputes and decided on affairs of the community.

The Warriors were young people who raided cattle and participated in wars. But restrictions imposed’ by Britishers affected the traditional authority of both Elders and Warriors.

Though the traditional difference between Elders and Warriors was disturbed it did not breakdown. With social change new distinction between wealthy and poor pastoralist developed.

The relevance of Maasai tribe can be realised from the fact that even today young men go through an elaborate ritual before they become warriors. The boys in the ceremony wear loose clothing and dance throughout the day.

Pastoral communities are greatly affected by the new laws and new borders of the countries. But they are not redundant communities rather recognised as the perfectly suitable communities for many hilly and dry regions by environmentalists and economists.

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Clothing: A Social History Class 9 Notes History Chapter 8

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Clothing: A Social History Class 9 Notes Social Science History Chapter 8

Clothing A Social History Class 9 Notes
There is a history to the clothes we wear. All societies observe certain rules about wearing clothes. Some of them are quite strict about the ways in which men, women and children should dress or different social classes and groups should dress themselves. These rules were made to define the identity of people. They shape the notions of grace and beauty, ideas of modesty and shame. As societies were transformed with time, these rules also changed.

Class 9 History Chapter 8 Notes
History Of Clothing Style
The emergence of the modern world is marked by dramatic changes in clothing. Before the age of democratic revolutions and the development of capitalist markets in 18th century Europe, most people dressed according to their regional codes. This was limited by the types of clothes and cost of materials that were available in that region. Clothing styles were strictly regulated by class, gender or status in the social hierarchy.

After 18th century, the colonisation of most of the world was done by Europe. The growth of democratic ideals and industrial society changed the thinking and meaning of clothes for people. The people started using styles and materials from other countries. The Western dress style for men was adopted worldwide.

Clothing A Social History
Sumptuary Laws And Social Hierarchy
In medieval Europe, detailed laws regarding the dress code were sometimes imposed upon members of different sections of societies. From about 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of France were expected to strictly follow the Sumptuary Laws. The laws tried to control the behaviour of social inferiors, preventing them from wearing certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages arid hunting game in certain areas.

In medieval France, the materials to be used for clothing were legally prescribed. Only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine, fur, silk, velvet and brocade. Other classes were not allowed to clothe themselves with materials that were used by the aristocratic class.

Not all Sumptuary Laws were meant to emphasise social hierarchy; some laws were passed to protect home production against imports.

For example, a law passed in 16th century England compelled all persons over six years of age except those of high position to wear woollen caps made in England. This law lasted for 26 years and was very useful in building up to English woollen industry.

Clothing A Social History Of Development
End of Sumptuary Laws

The French Revolution ended the dress distinctions between the rich and the poor, as it completely removed the Sumptuary Laws. Members of Jacobin clubs called themselves as ‘sans-culottes (without knee breeches). The fashionable ‘knee breeches’ were used by the aristocracy. Both men and women began wearing clothing that was loose and comfortable.

Blue, white and red became popular colours of France, as they were a sign of the patriotic citizen. Other political symbols too became a part of dress like the red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade which was pinned on to a hat. The simplicity of clothing was meant to express the idea of equality.

Clothing Class 9
Clothing And Notion Of Beauty
The end of Sumptuary Laws did not mean that everyone in European societies could now dress in the same way. Some social differences were still there, as the poor could not dress or eat like the rich people. But laws no longer stopped people’s right to dress in the way they wished. Different classes developed their own culture of dress according to their earnings.

Clothing Styles in Victorian England
Styles of clothing also emphasised differences between men and women. In Victorian England, dutiful and obedient women were considered ideal ones. They were expected to bear pain and sufferings. On the other hand, a man symbolised strength, depth, seriousness and responsibility. Norms or ideas of clothing reflected these ideals.

From childhood, girls were tightly laced up and dressed in stays. The effort was to restrict the growth to their bodies. When slightly older, girls had to wear tight fitting corsets having a busk. Tightly laced, small-waisted women were admired as attractive, elegant and graceful. Thus, clothing played a key role in creating humble and obedient Victorian women.

The reaction of Women to the Norms of Clothing
The ideals of womanhood were believed by many women.
They got the ideals from society, literature and educational institutions. From childhood, they grew up to believe that having a small waist was a womanly duly. Being a woman, it was essential to suffer pain. They had to wear the corset to be seen as attractive and to be womanly. But not everyone accepted these ideals.

Agitation in England
Over the 19th century, ideas of women changed. By the 1830s, women in England began agitating for democratic rights. As the suffrage movement developed, many women began agitating for democratic rights and campaigning for dress reform.
Women’s magazines described that tight dresses and corsets caused deformities and illness among young girls. Such clothing restricted body growth and affected blood circulation.

Their muscles remain underdeveloped and spines got bent. Doctors reported that many women were regularly complaining of acute weakness and fainted frequently. Thus, corset became necessary to hold up their weakened spine.

Agitation in America
In America, a similar movement developed amongst the white settlers on the East coast. Traditional feminine clothes were criticised for various reasons. Long skirts swept the grounds and collected dirt which caused illness. They were large in volume and difficult to handle.

In the 1870s, Mrs Stanton of the National Woman Suffrage Association and Lucy Stone of the American Woman ‘ Suffrage Association campaigned for dress reform. Everywhere conservatives opposed change.

Thus, women reformers did not immediately succeed in changing social values. But by the end of the 19th century, changes started with the new times and new values came. People began accepting the ideas of reformers.

New Times
Many changes were made possible in Britain due to the introduction of new materials and technologies. Other changes came'” about because of the two World Wars and the new working conditions for women.

Introduction of New Materials
Before the 17 th century, most of the ordinary women in Britain possessed very few clothes made of flax, linen or wool, which were difficult to clean. After 1600, trade with India brought cheap, beautiful, easy to maintain Indian chintzes within the reach of Europeans.

During the Industrial Revolution, cotton clothes, became more accessible to a wider section of people. By the early 20th century, artificial fibers appeared. They were clothes made of cheaper and easier to wash and maintain. Of the late 1870s, heavy, restrictive underclothes were no longer in use. Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.

Effect of the War on Clothing
Major changes happened in women’s clothing due to the two world wars. Many European ladies stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes. Social barriers were removed as upper class women mixed with other classes. All classes of women began to dress in similar ways.

During the First World War (1914-1918), clothes of women got shorter due to practical necessity. By 1917, over 7 lakh, women in Britain were employed in ammunition factories. They wore a working uniform. Khaki overalls, caps, short skirts and trousers became the dresses of new professional women. Use of bright colours in clothes was replaced by sober colours. Thus, clothes became plainer and simpler.

Effect of Professionalism and Games
For convenience women took to cutting their hair short. By the 20th century, a plain and. simple style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism.

Gymnastics and games entered the school curriculum for women. They had to wear clothes that did not affect movement. They needed clothes that were comfortable and convenient.

Clothing Transformation In Colonial India
During the colonial period, there were significant changes in male and female clothing in India. There was a consequence of the influence of Western dress forms and missionary activity. It was also due to the effort by Indians to fashion clothing styles that included an indigenous tradition and culture. Cloth and clothing became very important symbols of national movement.
In 19th century, Indians reacted to Western style clothing in following three different ways

Many people began incorporating some elements of Western style clothing in their dress. The wealthy Parsis of Western India were among the first to adopt Western style clothing. Baggy trousers and the phenta (hat) were added to long collarless coats, with boots and a walking stick.

Western-style clothing was accepted by dalits, who were converted to Christianity. At that time, it was men rather than women who accepted the new dress styles first.

There were others who were convinced ’that Western culture would lead to a loss of traditional cultural identity. The use of the Western style of clothes was taken as a sign of the world turning upside down.

Some men started wearing Western clothes without giving up their Indian clothes. In the late 19th century, many Bengali bureaucrats began stocking Western-style clothes for working outside the home and used the more comfortable Indian clothes at home.

Caste Conflict and Dress Change
Though there were no formal Sumptuary Laws in India, still it had its own strict social codes of food and dress. The caste system clearly defined what subordinate and dominant caste Hindus should wear, eat, etc., and these codes had the force of law.

An Example of Caste Conflict: Shanars of Kerala
The Shanars were a community of toddy tappers who migrates to Southern Travancore to work under Nair landlords. They were not allowed to use umbrellas, shoes or gold ornaments. Even men and women of Shanar community were not allowed to cover their upper bodies before the upper caste.

In 1820s, Shanar women under the influence of Christian missionaries began to wear tailored blouses like upper castes. But complaints were filed against them for dress change. Specially when shanars also refused to give free service to the upper castes. Hindu reformer like Ayya Vaikunder supported this dress reform.

In 1855, slavery was abolished in Travancore and caste conflict emerged among upper castes and the Shanars.
Finally by a proclamation of government, Shanar women were allowed to wear a jacket to cover their upper bodies, but not like women of upper castes.

British Rule and Dress Codes
In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary meanings. This leads to misunderstanding and conflict. Styles of clothing in British India changed through such conflicts.

The turban in India was not just for protection from the heat but was a sign of respectability and could not be removed at will. But in the Western tradition, the hat to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect. This cultural difference sometimes created misunderstanding.

The British were often offended if Indians did not take off their turban when they met colonial officials.
Another such conflict related to the wearing of shoes. Earlier, British officials had to follow Indian etiquette and remove their footwear in the courts of ruling kings or chiefs.

Some British officials also wore Indian clothes. But in 1830, Europeans were forbidden from wearing Indian clothes at official functions, so that the cultural identity of the white masters was not destroyed. At the same time, Indians were expected to wear Indian clothes to office and follow Indian dress codes.

Controversy Over Taking Off Shoes
In 1824-1828, Governor General Amherst ordered that Indians should take off their shoes as a sign of respect when they appeared before him. But this order was not strictly followed. Lord Dalhousie, made it mandatory that Indians were made to take off their shoes when entering any government institution. Only those who wore European clothes were exempted from this rule.

In 1862, Manockjec Cowasjee Entee, an assessor in the Surat Fouzdaree Adawlut, refused to take off his shoes in the court of sessions judge. He was restricted to enter into the courtroom and he sent a letter of protest to the Governor of Bombay. This incident led many controversies.

Indians urged that taking off shoes in sacred places and at homes was linked with following two reasons There was the problem of dirt. Shoes collected the dirt on the road. This dirt could not be allowed into spaces that were clean, particularly when people in Indian homes sat on the ground.

Leather shoes and the dirt that stuck under it were seen as polluting.
But public buildings like the courtrooms were different from home. It took many years for Indians to enter courtroom wearing shoes.

Designing the National Dress
As nationalist feelings swept across India by the late 19th century, Indians began developing cultural symbols that would express the unity of the nation. Artists looked for a National Style of art, poets wrote National Songs, a debate began over the design of National Flag, an experiment started in search of a National Dress. This move was to define the cultural identity of the nation in a symbolic way.

Chapkan: Combination of Hindu-Muslim Dresses
In the 1870s, the Tagore family of Bengal experimented with designs for a National Dress for both men and women in India. Rabindranath Tagore suggested that instead of combining Indian and European dresses, India’s National Dress should combine elements of Hindu and Muslim dresses.

So, the chapkan (a long buttoned coat) was considered the most suitable dress for men. There were also attempts to develop a dress style that would draw on the tradition of different regions.

Pan-Indian Style of Sari
In the late 1870s, Jnanadanandini Devi, wife of Satyendranath Tagore adopted the Parsi style of wearing the sari. This was adopted by women of Brahmo Samaj and came to be known as Brahmika sari.

This style gained acceptance among Maharashtrian and Uttar Pradesh Brahmos, as well as non-Brahmos. However, these attempts at devising a pan-Indian style did not fully succeed. Women of Gujarat, Kodagu, Kerala and Assam continue to wear different types of sari.

The Swadeshi Movement
The Swedeshi Movement in Bengal in the first decade of 20th century was centrally linked to the politics of clothing. The British first came to trade in Indian textiles that were in great demand all over the world. The Industrial Revolution in Britain which mechanised spinning and weaving and greatly increased the demand for raw materials’ such as cotton and indigo changed India’s status in the world economy.

Political control of India helped the British in two ways. Indian peasants were forced to grow crops like indigo and cheap British manufacture easily replaced coarser Indian products.

Large number of Indian weavers and spinners were left without work. Important textile weaving centres, like Murshidabad, Machilipatnam and Surat declined as demand fell.

Effect of Partition of Bengal on Swadeshi Movement
In 1905, Lord Curzon decided to partition Bengal to control the growing opposition to British rule. The Swadeshi Movement developed in reaction to this measure.

People were urged to boycott British goods of all kinds and started their own industries for the manufacture of goods, such as match boxes and cigarettes. The use of khadi had became the patriotic symbol. Women were urged to throw away their silk saries, glass bangles and wear simple shell bangles.

Rough homespun was glorified by the patriotic poems and songs. The change of dress appealed largely to the upper class, rather than the poor.

Actually, it was impossible to compete with the cheap machine made products of Britain by ‘Swadeshi’ products. Despite its limitations, the experiment with Swadeshi gave Mahatma Gandhi important ideas about using cloth as a symbolic weapon against British rule.

Mahatma Gandhi’s Experiments with Clothing
Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with clothing summed up the changing attitude to dress in the Indian sub-continent. It is stated in the points below

  • When he went to London to study Law as a boy of 19 in 1888, he cut off the tuft on his head and dressed in a Western suit. On his return, he continued to wear Western suits topped with a turban.
  • As a lawyer in Johannesburg, South Africa in the 1890s, he still wore Western clothes.
  • In Durban, in 1913, Gandhiji first appeared in an Itmgi and kurta with his head shaved as a sign of mourning to protest against the shooting of Indian coal miners.
  • On his return to India in 1915, Gandhiji decided to dress like a Kathiawadi peasant.
  • In 1921, he adopted the short dhoti, the form which he wore until his death. He adopted this dress of the poorest Indian to identify himself as a common man.
  • Khadi is a white and coarse dress material. It was a sign of purity, simplicity and poverty for Gandhiji. Wearing khadi also became a symbol of nationalism and a rejection of Western milPtnade cloth.
  • Gandhiji even wore the short dhoti without a shirt when he went to England for the Round Table Conference in 1931.

Responses for Gandhiji’s Call for Wearing Khadi
Mahatma Gandhi’s dream was to clothe the whole nation in khadi. He felt khadi would be a means of erasing difference between different religions, classes, etc.
Some examples of other responses to Mahatma Gandhi’s call are as follows

  • Nationalists such as Motilal Nehru, a successful barrister from Allahabad, gave up his expensive Western-style suits and adopted the Indian dhoti and kurta. But these were not made of coarse cloth.
  • Those who had been deprived by caste norms rules for centuries were attracted to Western dress styles. Therefore, unlike Mahatma’ Gandhi, other nationalists such as Babasaheb Ambedkar never gave up the Western-style suit.
  • Many Dalits in the early 1910s began to wear three-piece suits and shoes and socks on all public occasions, as a political statement of self-respect.
  • A woman from Maharashtra in 1928 wrote to Mahatma Gandhi in response of his call. She said, ‘A year ago, I heard you speaking on the extreme necessity of everyone of us wearing khadi and thereupon decided to adopt it. But we are poor people, my husband says khadi is costly. Belonging as I do to Maharashtra, I wear a sari nine yards long …. (and) elders will not hear of a reduction (to six yards)’.
  • Other women, like Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Nehru, wore coloured saris with designs, instead of coarse, white homespun.

Conclusion
Changes in styles of clothing are thus linked up with shifts m cultural tastes and notions or ideas of beauty. Style also enhance due to the changes in the economy and changes in society due to social and political conflict.

Societies observe rules, some of them are strict about the ways in which men, women and children should dress.

Societies are transformed as times change and modifications in clothing reflect these changes.

After the 18th century, most of the world was colonised by Europe. The growth of democratic ideals and industrial society changed the thinking and meaning of clothes for people.

From 1294-1789, Sumptuary Laws tried to control the socially inferior classes, from wearing certain clothes and consuming certain foods in France.

French Revolution ended the dress distinctions between the rich and the poor, as it completely removed the Sumptuary laws.

Law no longer barred people’s right to dress in the way they wished. Different classes developed their own culture of dress according to their earnings.

Styles of articles of clothing emphasized differences between men and women in Victorian England. Women were groomed to be docile, dutiful, submissive whereas, man symbolised strength, depth, seriousness and responsibility.

By the 1830s women in England began agitating for democratic rights. As the suffrage movement developed, many women started campaigning for dress reform.

During the Industrial Revolution, cotton clothes, which were easy to wash and maintain, become’more accessible to a wider section of people. Thus clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.

Radical changes happened in women’s clothing due to the two World Wars. European ladies stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes.

Women started to wear uniform in their work place. Thus clothes became plainer, simpler and convenient.

During the colonial period, there were significant changes in male and female clothing in India.

This change was consequence of the influence of western . dress forms and missionary activities.

In 19th century western style clothing was accepted by dalits, who were converted to Christianity. It was men rather than women who accepted the new dress styles first.

India had its own strict social codes of food and dress. The caste system clearly defined what subordinates and dominant caste Hindus should wear, eat, etc. and these codes had the force of law. For example, men and women of Shanar community were? not allowed to cover their upper bodies before the upper caste.

In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary meaning. This leads to misunderstanding and conflict, styles of clothing in British India changed through such conflicts.

The Turban in India could not be removed at will as it was a sign of respectibility not just for protection from heat. But in western tradition the hat to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.

By the late 19th century, as nationalist feelings emerged, India began preparing cultural symbol that would express the unity of the nation. Experiment started over National Songs, National Flag, and National Dress.

Rabindranath Tagore suggested the Chapkan as the most suitable dress for men and Brahmika Sari was adopted for women by Jananadanandini Devi.

The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal was linked to the politics of clothing.

Political control of India helped the British in two ways. Indian peasants were forced to grow crops like Indigo and cheap British manufacture easily replaced coarser Indian products.

In 1905 partition of Bengal started Swedeshi Movement. People started boycott of British goods of all kinds. The use of Khadi had become the patriotic symbol.

Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with clothing summed up the changing attitude to dress in the Indian sub-continent. Wearing Khadi become a symbol of Nationalism.

Not all Indian could wear khadi as it was coarse and costly rather than mill-made cloth.

Gandhi cap became a symbol of defiance and a part of the nationalist uniform.

Changes in style of clothing arise due to economic, social and political changes in the society.

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