Students must start practising the questions from CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology with Solutions Set 7 are designed as per the revised syllabus.
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology Set 7 with Solutions
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks: 80
General Instructions :
All questions are compulsory except where internal choice has been given.
- Question Nos 1 -18 in Section A carry 1 mark each.
- Question Nos 19-23 in Section B are Very Short Answer Type – I questions carrying 2 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
- Question Nos 24-27 in Section C are Short Answer Questions Type – II carrying 3 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 60 words.
- Question Nos 28 – 31 in Section D are Long Answer Type – I questions carrying 4 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 120 words.
- Question No. 32 in Section E is a Long Answer Type – II question carrying 6 marks. Answer to this question should not exceed 200 words
- Question Nos 33- 36 in Section F is based on two cases given. Each case has two questions carrying two marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
Section – A (18 Marks)
Question 1.
_______ is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination. [1]
(a) Biofeedback
(b) Art therapy
(c) Creative visualisation
(d) Meditation
Answer:
(c) Creative visualisation
Explanation: It is an effective technique for dealing with stress. Creative visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination.
Question 2.
Hippocrates, Socrates and Plato developed which approach? [1]
(a) Organismic approach
(b) Type A
(c) Psychological approach
(d) Organic approach
Answer:
(a) Organismic approach
Explanation: Physicians of ancient Greece such as Hippocrates, Socrates, and in particular Plato developed the organismic approach and viewed disturbed behaviour as arising out of conflicts between emotion and reason.
Question 3.
Ayra did not get admission to the college of her choice. She told her friends that she never really wanted to go there. She is using a defence mechanism called_______ [1]
(a) Rationalisation
(b) Reaction formation
(c) Denial
(d) Repression
Answer:
(a) Rationalisation
Explanation: In rationalisation, a person tries to justify what he did. In denial and repression, there is conscious/ unconscious suppression whereas in reaction formation there is an opposite attitude and behaviour.
Question 4.
Schizophrenia is linked with the excessive activity of the neurotransmitter called. [1]
(a) Serotonin
(b) Dopamine
(c) Adrenaline
(d) Gamma-Aminobutyric acid
Answer:
(b) Dopamine
Explanation: Excess dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia.
Question 5.
According to the trigonal theory of personality which guna characterizes laziness, anger, arrogance, depression and helplessness? [1]
(a) Tamas
(b) Rajas
(c) Sattva
(d) Kapha
Answer:
(a) Tamas
Explanation: Sattva guna includes attributes like cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, detachment, discipline, etc. Rajas guna includes intensive activity, a desire for a sense of gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for others, and a materialistic mentality, etc. Tamas guna characterises anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, and feeling of helplessness.
Question 6.
Often stereotypes consist of _______characteristics about the target group. [1]
(a) Negative
(b) Undesirable
(c) Desirable
(d) Both (a) and (b)
Answer:
(b) Undesirable
Explanation: Due to undesirable characteristics stereotype develops.
Question 7.
Hardiness consists of 3C’s, named challenge,_______and_______ [1]
(a) Creativity, commitment
(b) Commitment, control
(c) Control, creativity
(d) Creativity, capable
Answer:
(b) Commitment, control
Explanation: Hardiness is a set of traits that were developed by Kobasa. It has 3 characteristics commitment, challenge and control.
Question 8.
Johann Weyer emphasized psychological conflicts as causes of psychological disorders. [1]
(a) frustration
(b) disturbed interpersonal relationship
(c) disturbed intrapersonal relation
(d) conflicts
Answer:
(b) Disturbed interpersonal relationship
Explanation: The Renaissance Period was marked by increased humanism and curiosity about behaviour. Johann Weyer emphasised psychological conflict and disturbed interpersonal relationships as causes of psychological disorders.
Question 9.
When the majority group places the blame on a minority group, it is referred to as: [1]
(a) Prejudice
(b) Negative attitude
(c) Stereotype
(d) Scapegoating
Answer:
(d) Scapegoating
Explanation: This is a phenomenon by which the majority group places the blame on a minority outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems
Question 10.
Long and Mehta have prepared a handbook listing 103 tests of intelligence in India available in various languages. [1]
(a) True
(b) False
(c) C.H Rice
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) True
Explanation: Long and Mehta prepared a handbook of 103 intelligence tests.
Question 11.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): Teams are special kinds of groups.
Reason (R): Members of teams often have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal or purpose. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Explanation: teams are special kinds of groups and their members have complementary skills which help them in achieving their goals.
Question 12.
Ria is constantly scanning the environment for dangers and this is accompanied by extreme motor tension. She is experiencing_______. [1]
(a) Generalised anxiety disorder
(b) Panic disorder
(c) Delusion of persecution
(d) Phobia
Answer:
(a) Generalised anxiety disorder
Explanation: In GAD, a person is always on the verge of looking out for some danger and has motor tension.
Question 13.
_______tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way. [1]
(a) Temperament
(b) Disposition
(c) Personality
(d) Values
Answer:
(b) Disposition
Explanation: Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting. Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving. Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way. Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour. Habit: Over-learned modes of behaving. Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve.
Question 14.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): person develops maladaptive behaviour due to a discrepancy between the ideal and real self.
Reason (R): according to the humanistic approach, people want to have a sense of ideal and real self and they should be congruent. When they are not, it results in abnormal behaviour. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Explanation: Non-verbal tests and performance tests require objects to be moved around and not something verbal or written which requires a minimum intellect level.
Question 15.
Which type of white blood cells are attacked by HIV? [1]
(a) T-cells
(b) B-cells
(c) Natural killer cells
(d) T helper cells
Answer:
(a) T-cells
Explanation: It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Question 16.
The process of placed emphasis on providing community care to the recovered mentally ill individuals is: [1]
(a) Rehabilitation
(b) Deinsutionalisation
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Deinstuitionalisation
Explanation: Deinstitutionalisation placed emphasis on providing community care for recovered mentally ill individuals.
Question 17.
Intelligence is not so valued in many Asian and African societies. The society is: [1]
(a) Integra
(b) Emotional
(c) Technological
(d) Experientia
Answer:
(c) technological
Explanation: These societies put more emphasis on emotions and integral and experiential intelligence.
Question 18.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): stress inoculation is a cognitive behavioural technique
Reason (R): it helps replace negative thoughts with rational ones and focuses on both cognition and behaviour. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
Explanation: Obedience is the most direct and explicit form of social influence as the person asks the other to directly obey
Section – B (10 Marks)
Question 19.
With the help of an example illustrate how 21. How did Erich Fromm describe personality? target characteristics play an important role in bringing about attitude change. [2]
Answer:
Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence influence the likelihood and extent of attitude change. People, who have a more open and flexible personality, change more easily. Advertisers benefit most from such people. People with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change than those who do not hold strong prejudices.
Persons who have low self-esteem, and do not have sufficient confidence in themselves, change their attitudes more easily than those who are high self-esteem. More intelligent people may change their attitudes less easily than those with lower intelligence. However, sometimes more intelligent persons change their attitudes more willingly than less intelligent ones, because they base their attitudes on more information and thinking.
Question 20.
List the symptoms of Separation Anxiety Disorder.
OR
What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder? [2]
Answer:
Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is another type of anxiety disorder. Individuals with separation anxiety disorder are fearful and anxious about separation from attachment figures to an extent that is developmentally not appropriate. Children with SAD may have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful of entering new situations, and clinging to and shadowing their parents’ every move. To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures.
OR
People affected by the obsessive-compulsive disorder are unable to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal activities. Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic. The person involved, often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful. Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again. Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching and washing.
Question 21.
How did Erich Fromm describe personality? [2]
Answer:
From developed his theory from a social orientation. He viewed human beings as basically social beings who could be understood in terms of their relationship with others. He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and realisation of potential resulted from a desire for freedom, and striving for justice and truth. Fromm holds that character traits (personality) develop from our experiences with other individuals.
While culture is shaped by the mode of existence of a given society, people’s dominant character traits in a given society work as forces in shaping the social processes and the culture itself. His work recognises the value of positive qualities, such as tenderness and love in personality development.
Question 22.
Describe any 3 factors that contribute to healing in Psychotherapy. [2]
Answer:
There are several factors which contribute to the healing process. Some of these factors are as follows:
A major factor in healing is the techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with the patient/client. The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between the therapist and the patient/ client, has healing properties, because of the regular availability of the therapist, and the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist.
At the outset of therapy, while the patient/ client is being interviewed in the initial sessions to understand the nature of the problem, she/he unburdens the emotional problems being faced. This process of emotional unburdening is known as catharsis, and it has healing properties.
Question 23.
What do you understand by the delay of gratification? Explain the techniques used for the same. [2]
Answer:
Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs is called self-control. Self-control plays a key role in the fulfilment of long-term goals. Techniques that can be used for self-control are: Observation own behaviour is one of them. This provides us with the necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self. Self-instruction is another important technique. We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation. Self-reinforcement is the third technique. This involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes.
Section – C (12 Marks)
Question 24.
Elaborate on the emotional and cognitive effects of stress. [3]
Answer:
Stress can affect every aspect of our life. The effects of stress can range from physiological to emotional to social.
(1) Emotional effect: Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings, and show erratic behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension and mood swings.
(2) Cognitive Effects: If pressure due to stress continues, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high levels of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in a career, or at the workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job. The cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity.
Question 25.
Elaborate on any 2 theories of intelligence based on the Psychometric approach. [3]
Answer:
The psychometric approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. Some of the theories of the psychometric approach are:
Available in different cultural traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore, conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.
His theory of intelligence is called Uni or the one-factor theory of intelligence. Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of abilities operating at two levels, called Level I and Level II. Level I is associative learning in which the output is more or less similar to the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). Level II, called cognitive competence, involves higher-order skills as they transform the input to produce an effective output.
Question 26.
Is there a consistency between attitude and behaviour? Explain.
OR
Elaborate on the two-step model of attitude change with the help of an example. [3]
Answer:
An individual’s attitudes may not always be exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic. Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitudes and behaviour when :
- The attitude is strong, and occupies a central place in the attitude system,
- The person is aware of her/his attitude,
- There is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way. For example, when there is no group pressure to follow a particular norm.
- The person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others, and
- The person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequence, and therefore, intends to engage in that behaviour.
OR
The two-step concept was proposed by S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist. According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps. In the first step, the target of change identifies with the source. The ‘target’ is the person whose attitude is to be changed. The ’source’ is the person through whose influence the change is to take place. Identification means that the target has liking and regard for the source. She/he puts herself/himself in the place of the target and tries to feel like her/him.
The source must also have a positive attitude towards the target, and the regard and attraction become mutual. In the second step, the source herself/himself shows an attitude change, by actually changing her/ him behaviour towards the attitude object. Observing the source’s changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour.
Question 27.
Explain any 3 bits of intelligence of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence. [3]
Answer:
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligence exist. Each of this intelligence is independent of the other. He gave 8 types of intelligence that are independent. The three bits of intelligence that Howard described are; Bodily-Kinaesthetic (an ability to use whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively):
This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for the display or construction of products and problem-solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons are likely to have such kind of intelligence. Interpersonal (an ability to understand subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This is the ability to understand the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders are likely to possess high interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal (an ability to understand one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence, and meaning of life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of this type of intelligence. Other intelligence: spatial, linguistic, mathematical, musical, and naturalistic to be also included.
Section – D (16 Marks)
Question 28.
Elaborate on the important elements of the group structure.
OR
Explain the determinants of Competition and Cooperation. [4]
Answer:
During the process of group formation, groups also develop a structure. We should remember that group structure develops as members interact. Four important elements of group structure are :
Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context. Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and enforced by group members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules. In your family, there are norms that guide the behaviour of family members. Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others.
This relative position or status may be either ascribed (given may be because of one’s seniority) or achieved (the person has achieved status because of expertise or hard work). Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members. As the group becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act as a social unit, and Less like isolated individuals. Members of a highly cohesive group have a greater desire to remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to low cohesive groups.
OR
The determinants of competition and cooperation are:
(1) Reward structure: Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate or compete will depend on the reward structure. A cooperative reward structure is one in which there is promotive interdependence. Each is a beneficiary of the reward and the reward is possible only if all contribute. A competitive reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if others do not get it.
(2) Interpersonal communication: When there is good interpersonal communication, then cooperation is the likely consequence. Communication facilitates interaction and discussion. As a result, group members can convince each other and learn about each other.
(3) Reciprocity: Reciprocity means that people feel obliged to return what they get. Initial cooperation may encourage more cooperation. Competition may provoke more competition. If someone helps, you feel Like helping that person; on the other hand, if someone refuses to help you when you need help, you would not like to help that person also.
Question 29.
Describe any four Behaviour techniques used by therapists. [4]
Answer:
A range of techniques is available for changing behaviour. The principles of these techniques are to reduce the arousal level of the client and alter behaviour through classical conditioning or operant conditioning with different contingencies of reinforcements. These techniques are: Persons with behavioural problems can be given a token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected and exchanged for a reward such as an outing for the patient or a treat for the child.
This is known as the token economy. The principle of reciprocal inhibition operates here. This principle states that the presence of two mutually opposing forces at the same time inhibits the weaker force. Thus, the relaxation response is first built up and a mildly anxiety-provoking scene is imagined, and the anxiety is overcome by the relaxation. The client is able to tolerate progressively greater Levels of anxiety because of her/ his relaxed state.
Modelling is the procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role model. Vicarious learning, i.e. learning by observing others, Positive reinforcement is given to increase the deficit. For example, if a child does not do homework regularly, positive reinforcement may be used by the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite dish whenever she/he does homework at the appointed time. The positive reinforcement of food will increase the behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time.
Question 30.
With the help of examples, explain the different types of stress. [4]
Answer:
The three major types of stress, viz. physical and environmental, psychological, and social are as follows:
(1) Physical and Environmental Stress: Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body. We feel strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or fail to get enough sleep. Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, the heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc.
(2) Psychological Stress: These are stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress. Some of the important sources of psychological stress are frustration, conflicts, internal and social pressures, etc. Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or someone that hinders us from achieving the desired goal. Conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives, Social pressures may be brought about by people who make excessive demands on us.
(3) Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, and trouble with neighbours are some examples of social stresses. These social stresses vary widely from person to person. Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person may find staying at home in the evenings stressful.
Question 31.
Explain the socio-cultural model of abnormality.
OR
Discuss the various types of Conduct disorders. [4]
Answer:
Socio-cultural factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and employment problems, and rapid social change, put stress on most of us and can also lead to psychological problems in some individuals. According to the socio-cultural model, abnormal behaviour is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual. As behaviour is shaped by societal forces, factors such as family structure and communication, social networks, societal conditions, and societal Labels and roles become more important.
It has been found that certain family systems are likely to produce abnormal functioning in individual members. Some families have an enmeshed structure in which the members are overinvolved in each other’s activities, thoughts, and feelings. Children from this kind of family may have difficulty becoming independent in life. The broader social networks in which people operate include their social and professional relationships.
Studies have shown that people who are isolated and lack social support, i.e. strong and fulfilling interpersonal relationships in their lives are likely to become more depressed and remain depressed longer than those who have good friendships. Socio-cultural theorists also believe that abnormal functioning is influenced by the societal Labels and roles assigned to troubled people. When people break the norms of their society, they are called deviant and ‘mentally ill. Such labels tend to stick so that the person may be viewed as ‘crazy’ and encouraged to act sick.
OR
The disorders included under this category are Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder and others. Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) display age-inappropriate amounts of stubbornness, are irritable, defiant, disobedient, and behave in a hostile manner. Individuals with ODD do not see themselves as angry, oppositional, or defiant and often justify their behaviour as a reaction to circumstances/demands.
Thus, the symptoms of the disorder become entangled with problematic interactions with others. Terres conduct disorder and antisocial behaviour refer to inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, societal norms, and the personal or property rights of others. The behaviours typical of conduct disorder include aggressive actions that cause or threaten harm to people or animals, nonaggressive conduct that causes property damage, major deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule violations.
Children show many different types of aggressive behaviour, such as verbal aggression (i.e. name-calling, swearing), physical aggression (i.e. hitting, fighting), hostile aggression (i.e. directed at inflicting injury to others), and proactive aggression (i.e. dominating and bullying others without provocation).
Section – E (6 Marks)
Question 32.
How does the trait approach conceptualise the notion of personality? Discuss any two theories in detail
OR
Explain any 4 methods of Behavioural analysis. [6]
Answer:
The trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways. A trait is considered a relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from another. They include a range of possible behaviours that are activated according to the demands of the situation. Thus,
- traits are relatively stable over time.
- they are generally consistent across situations, and
- their strengths and combinations vary across individuals leading to individual differences in personality.
The trait theories are:
AUport’s Trait Theory: Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of the trait approach. He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. They determine behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different situations with similar plans. The traits integrate stimuli and responses which otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued that the words people use to describe themselves and others provide a basis for understanding human personality.
Allport, based on this, categorised traits into cardinal, central, and secondary. Cardinal traits are highly generalised dispositions. They indicate the goal around which a person’s entire life seems to revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of cardinal traits. Such traits often get associated with the name of the person so strongly that they derive such identities as the ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Less pervasive in effect, but still quite generalised dispositions, are called central traits.
These traits (e.g., warmth, sincerity, diligence, etc.) are often used in writing a testimonial or job recommendation for a person. The least generalised characteristics of a person are called secondary traits. Traits such as Tikes mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are examples of secondary traits. While Allport acknowledged the influence of situations on behaviour, he held that the way a person reacts to given situations depends on her/his traits, although people sharing the same traits might express them in different ways.
Allport considered traits more like intervening variables that occur between the stimulus situation and the response of the person. This meant that any variation in traits would elicit a different response to the same situation Cattell Personality Factors: Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ from each other. This structure could be determined empirically. He tried to identify the primary traits from a huge array of descriptive adjectives found in language.
He applied a statistical technique, called factor analysis, to discover the common structures. He found 16 primary or source traits. The source traits are stable and are considered the building blocks of personality. Besides these, there are also a number of surface traits that result from the interaction of source traits. Cattell described the source traits in terms of opposing tendencies. He developed a test, called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment of personality. This test is widely used by psychologists.
OR
A person’s behaviour in a variety of situations can provide us with meaningful information about her/his personality. Observation of behaviour serves as the basis of behavioural analysis. An observer’s report may contain data obtained from interviews, observations, ratings, nominations and situational tests.
(1) Observation: Behavioural observation is another method which is very commonly used for the assessment of personality, use of observation for personality assessment is a sophisticated procedure that cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires careful training of the observer and a fairly detailed guideline about the analysis of behaviours in order to assess the personality of a given person. In spite of their frequent and widespread use, observation and interview methods are characterised by the following Limitations:
- Professional training required for the collection of useful data through these methods is quite demanding and time-consuming.
- The maturity of the psychologist is a pre¬ condition for obtaining valid data through these techniques.
- The mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results. As a stranger, the observer may influence the behaviour of the person being observed and thus not obtain good data.
(2) Situational Tests: A variety of situational tests have been devised for the assessment of personality. The most commonly used test of this kind is the situational stress test. It provides us with information about how a person behaves in stressful situations. The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be non-cooperative and interfering. The test involves a kind of role-playing. The person is instructed to play a role for which she/he is observed. A verbal report is also obtained on what she/he was asked to do. The situation may be a realistic one, or it may be created through a video play.
(3) Behavioural Ratings: Behavioural ratings are frequently used for the assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings. They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms. It has been found that use of numbers or general descriptive adjectives in rating scales always creates confusion for the rater. In order to use ratings effectively, the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors. The method of rating suffers from the following major limitations:
- Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example, most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.
- Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale.
(4) Nomination: This method is often used in obtaining peer assessment. It can be used with persons who have been in long-term interaction and who know each other very well. In using nomination, each person is asked to choose one or more persons of the group with whom she/he would like to work, study, play or participate in any other activity. The person may also be asked to specify the reason for her/ his choices. Nominations thus received may be analysed to understand the personality and behavioural qualities of the person. This technique has been found to be highly dependable, although it may also be affected by personal biases.
Section -F (8 Marks)
Case study 1
The psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the commonsensical notion of intelligence. explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence.
Question 33.
How did Alfred Binet describe intelligence? Explain his theory. [2]
Answer:
Available in different cultural traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore, conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of intelligence is called Uni or the one-factor theory of intelligence.
Question 34.
What is the most accepted definition of intelligence? [2]
Answer:
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation
to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment.
Case study 2
Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of the trait approach. He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. They determine behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different situations with similar plans. The traits integrate stimuli and responses which otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued that the words people use to describe themselves and others provide a basis for understanding human personality.
Question 35.
Describe Allport’s theory of personality. [2]
Answer:
Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of the trait approach. He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of the trait approach. He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. Lesspervasive in effect, but still quite generalised dispositions, are called central traits. The least generalised characteristics of a person are called secondary traits.
Question 36.
“Any variation in traits would elicit a different response to the same situation”. Explain. [2]
Answer:
While Allport acknowledged the influence of situations on behaviour, he held that the way a person reacts to given situations depends on her/his traits, although people sharing the same traits might express them in different ways. Allport considered traits more like intervening variables that occur between the stimulus situation and the response of the person. This meant that any variation in traits would elicit a different response to the same situation.