CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology Set 4 with Solutions

Students must start practicing the questions from CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology with Solutions Set 4 are designed as per the revised syllabus.

CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology Set 4 with Solutions

Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks: 80

General Instructions:

All questions are compulsory except where internal choice has been given.

Question Nos 1-18 in Section A carry 1 mark each.
Question Nos 19-23 in Section B are Very Short Answer Type – I questions carrying 2 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
Question Nos 24-27 in Section C are Short Answer Questions Type – II carrying 3 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 60 words.
Question Nos 28-31 in Section D are Long Answer Type – I questions carrying 4 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 120 words.
Question No. 32 in Section E is a Long Answer Type – II question carrying 6 marks. Answer to this question should not exceed 200 words
Question Nos 33-36 in Section F are based on two cases given. Each case has two questions carrying two marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.

Section – A (18 Marks)

Question 1.
What types of aptitudes tests are available? [1]
(a) Verbal and nonverbal test
(b) Independent and multiple test
(c) Performance tests and independent test
(d) Multiple tests and verbal tests
Answer:
(b) Independent and multiple test

Explanation: Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude tests.

Question 2.
Which cells help in fighting viruses and tumors? [1]
(a) T-cells
(b) B- cells
(c) Natural killer cells
(d) Antibodies
Answer:
(c) Natural killer cells

Explanation: B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological activity. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours.

Question 3.
Arin, a 10-year-old boy, was found to be positive for coronavirus. Amidst this, his family suffered huge losses of property and finances because of an unexpected fire in their factory. Such a source of stress is referred to as: [1]
(a) Hassles
(b) Social pressures
(c) Internal pressures
(d) Traumatic events
Answer:
(d) Traumatic events

Explanation: Hassles refers to day-to-day problems, social pressures refers to stress caused due to expectations of people in society and internal pressures refers to one’s expectations from oneself leading to stress.

Question 4.
Vibha’s office is split into 5 floors. She has a fear of the elevator which makes her dysfunctional at her workplace, as she has to spend 20-30% of the time during the day taking the staircase. She is suffering from a disorder called ______. [1]
(a) Generalised anxiety disorder
(b) Phobia
(c) Agoraphobia
(d) Specific phobia
Answer:
(d) Specific phobia

Explanation: Phobias refer to the irrational fears of something and are of three types specific phobias, social phobias and agoraphobia.

Question 5.
______intelligence refers to the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. [1]
(a) Contextual intelligence
(b) Spatial intelligence
(c) Interpersonal intelligence
(d) Street smart
Answer:
(a) Contextual intelligence

Explanation: According to Sternberg, the ability to select, adapt to and shape the environment as per one’s needs is referred to as contextual intelligence.

Question 6.
Which of the following are the sources of stress? [1]
(a) Hassles
(b) Life events
(c) Traumatic events
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(d) all of the above

Explanation: Hassles, Life events and traumatic events are sources of stress.

Question 7.
A schizophrenic shows reduction in speech and in speech content. This symptom is referred to as _____. [1]
(a) Alogia
(b) Avolition
(c) Flat affect
(d) Negative symptom
Answer:
(a) Alogia

Explanation: Four negative symptoms of Schizophrenia are – alogia (poverty of speech), blunted affect (less expression of anger, joy and sorrow), flat affect (no emotions) and avolition (inability to start or complete a course of action).

Question 8.
‘Overcoming the inferiority complex is essential for optimal personality development’ was the notion proposed by the Post-Freudian named ______. [1]
(a) Erik Erikson
(b) Alfred Adler
(c) Karen Horney
(d) Martin Seligmann
Answer:
(b) Alfred Adler

Explanation: A few more Post-Freudians who adapted and developed some of Freud’s concepts of personality are Erik Erikson, Erich
Fromm, Karen Horney and Carl Jung.

Question 9.
Maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours is called ______. [1]
(a) Catatonia
(b) Catatonia stupor
(c) Catanoia rigidity
(d) Catatonia posturing
Answer:
(c) Catatonia rigidity

Explanation: These symptoms may take extreme forms known as catatonia. People in a catatonic stupor remain motionless and silent for long stretches of time. Some show catatonic rigidity, i.e. maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours. Others exhibit catatonic posturing, i.e. assuming awkward, bizarre positions for long periods of time.

Question 10.
Skills necessary to undertake productive employment are taught in therapy are: [1]
(a) Occupational skills
(b) Vocational skills
(c) Selfhelp skills
(d) Employment skills
Answer:
(b) Vocational skills

Explanation: One of the therapies given to the clients during rehabilitation is vocational therapy in addition to cognitive retraining, social skills training and occupational therapy.

Question 11.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (a): To be successful in any field, you should have aptitude and interest both.
Reason (r): aptitude refers to specific ability and interest is preference of one thing over other. If either of them is missing, it might happen that you won’t succeed in that field. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

Explanation: Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that activity. A person may be interested in a particular job or activity, but may not have the aptitude for it.

Question 12.
Reduced effort by individuals in the game of tug of war is an example of social behaviour referred to as: [1]
(a) Social facilitation
(b) Social loafing
(c) Group
(d) Individual differences
Answer:
(b) Social Loafing

Explanation: Research in the domain of Social loafing has been done by Latane to prove that individual effort decreases in group tasks.

Question 13.
The relative status of an individual in the group may either be achieved or ______. [1]
(a) gained
(b) ascribed
(c) snatched
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) Ascribed

Explanation: Status in the group can be either achieved through one’s efforts or ascribed by the members of the group.

Question 14.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): Verbal test are culturally fair tests.
Reason (R): verbal tests require responses either orally or written and can be administered on literate people. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(c) A is not correct but R is correct.

Explanation: verbal tests are culturally biased test as they can be only administered on literate people.

Question 15.
Angie has been very stressed with her job lately, is unable to make work-related decisions and repetitively forgets the tasks that she is allocated to complete for the day. It can be said that stress is having dysfunctional effects on her abilities. The effect on Angie has: [1]
(a) Behavioral
(b) Cognitive
(c) Emotional
(d) Physiological
Answer:
(b) Cognitive

Explanation: Stress can have four kinds of effects on any individual i.e., physiological, cognitive, behavioural and emotional.

Question 16.
The PASS processes operate on the knowledge base developed formally (by reading, writing and experimenting) only. [1]
(a) True
(b) False
(c) Uni factor theory
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) False

Explanation: The PASS processes operate on the knowledge base developed formally (by reading, writing and experimenting) as well as those developed Informally.

Question 17.
The tendency to think that if a person has one positive quality then he/she must have other positive qualities too is referred to as ______. [1]
(a) Halo effect
(b) Middle-category bias
(c) Extreme bias
(d) Recency effect
Answer:
(a) Halo effect

Explanation: In the domain of impression formation, three types of effects are typically observed i.e., primacy effect basis of information.

Question 18.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (a): Aversive condition refers to association of undesired response with an aversive consequence.
Reason (r): having a negative consequence, the person will avoid the behavior. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.

Explanation: Aversive conditioning refers to association of undesired response. When a person gets a negative consequence, it is less likely they will do it again.

Section -B (10 Marks)

Question 19.
Elucidate the nature of relationship between the pattern of adjustment and self-concept as per the humanistic approach. [2]
Answer:
The humanistic approach of personality development emphasizes a positive view of the human being. According to this approach, an individual who is healthy has an awareness of self, one’s feelings and limits and accepts responsibility for ones life. Rogers believed that personality development s a continuous process and is affected by the social factors, which in turn influence an individual self-concept and determine his/her personality.

People with positive self-concepts are open to experiences, which lead to congruence and hence they are better adjusted in society as compared to people whose self-concepts and experiences are incongruent, ultimately leading them to be poorly adjusted.

Question 20.
How does a stress resistant personality moderate the impact of stressful events? [2]
Answer:
Research done by Kobasa indicates that people who are exposed to high amounts of stress but can stay healthy have a stress resistant personality or high level of hardiness. Hardiness reflects a set of belief that people have about themselves, the world and how they interact.
The three

Commitment: They have a sense of purpose, direction and commitment to their roles at work, family, hobbies and in social life.
Challenge: They perceive changes in life as positive rather than as a threat.
Control: They have a sense of control over their lives and their goals.

Question 21.
Explain the concept of Intelligent Quotient. [2]
Answer:
In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to formally measure intelligence. In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group. A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average performance level of a group of 5-year-olds. Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.

A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age years below the chronological age. In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

Question 22.
How do kernel of truth serve as sources of prejudices?
OR
Discuss any three ways in which people learn to form attitudes. [2]
Answer:
Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular group. They are usually negative, and in many cases, may be based on stereotypes (the cognitive component), frequently accompanied by dislike or hatred (the affective component) and may also get translated into discrimination (the behavioural component).

Kernel of Truth-Sometimes people continue to hold stereotypes because they believe that there must be some truth in them. Even few examples are enough to support the kernel of truth Attitude is a state of mind, a state of views or thoughts, regarding some topic or person, which has an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral) combined with an emotional component and a tendency to act in a particular manner.

Social psychologists primarily focus on the role of learning and exposure to environmental conditions that enable the process of attitude formation. Some ways of learning attitudes are:

By association: Learning positive attitudes by associating two stimuli together. For example, positive attitude toward a subject because of the liking for a teacher.

Reward and punishment: Because a child gets rewarded for exhibiting positive attitude towards someone, he/she develops that attitude and on being punished for a negative attitude, he/she learns not to have negative attitude toward an object or person.

By modelling: By seeing his/her parents and elders showing a particular attitude towards an object or individual, a child develops the same attitudes.

Question 23.
Illustrate the relevance of emotional intelligence for educators. [2]
Answer:
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. Salovey and Mayer defined emotional intelligence as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Emotional intelligence is relevant to the educators as it helps them in the following ways:

Dealing with stressed students: Educators with the knowledge of EI are in a better position to deal with students in stress.

Developing programs for enhancing EI of students: This leads to enhancement in academic achievement of the students.

To enhance students, social competence: This helps students become cooperative and enhances their ability to deal with challenges outside the classroom.

Section – C (12 Marks)

Question 24.
Examine the influence of modern lifestyle on the health of people. Suggest how certain changes in our lifestyle can help beat stress and enhance the quality of one’s life. [3]
Answer:
Lifestyle refers to an overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of Life. In the current scenario with excessive demands on individuals due to professional pressures, social and family commitments, the experience of stress may lead them to engage in high-risk behaviours. Stressed people have poor nutritional habits, unhealthy sleep pattern and health risking behaviours, like smoking and excessive drinking. These habits adversely impact physical and mental health.

Diet: Due to stress, people may end up binging on high calorie food, ultimately leading to either obesity or other physical illnesses. By introducing a balanced diet in one’s routine, one can lift one’s mood, feel energetic, feed muscles, improve circulation, prevent illness and strengthen the immune system. All of this together can enable a person to feel better and cope the stress.

Exercise: There’s a consistent positive relationship between physical fitness and health. Regular exercises help manage weight, health and well-being better to address stressful situations.

Overcoming unhelpful habits: Unhelpful habits like perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination, etc. can make a person more vulnerable to stress. People high on perfectionism are unable to adapt to changes in time limits and hence experience distress. Similarly, avoidance and procrastination lead an individual to postponing their work due to fear of facing failures or rejection and hence lead to the experience of stress.

Question 25.
The recruitment process for various posts of the Student Council is going on in your school. How will the methods of Behavioural analysis and nominations enable the School. Psychologist to prepare a personality analysis of the prospective candidates? [3]
Answer:
An individual’s behaviour in a variety of contexts can provide meaningful information about his personality. Some of the Behavioural methods that could be helpful to the School Psychologist for the Personality assessment of tentative selection to the Student Council are:

Behavioural Ratings: These are frequently used for personality assessment of individuals in educational or industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from the people who have known the client for a long period of time. In order to use ratings the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors.

The School Psychologist could get the prospective candidates rated on specific characteristics like resilience, extroversion, ability to deliver under pressure, teamwork, leadership skills and such like others.

Limitations of Behavioural Rating method:

Halo effect: Raters may get influenced by single favourable or unfavourable trait which colours the overall judgment on all the traits.
Extreme response bias or middle category bias: The tendency to place an individual in the middle of the scale or in the extreme positions.

Nominations: Refer to peer assessment. In this method people in a group who know each other for a long period are asked to nominate another person from the group for a particular task or position. Then they are asked to state the reason why they have nominated that person. Nominations are analyzed to assess the personality of the subject.

Related Theory
Situational tests are also used for behaviour analysis. The most commonly used test is Situational Stress test. It provides us information on how a person behaves under stressful conditions. It can be done through real situations or created through video play.

Question 26.
Explain the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy. [3]
Answer:
Psychotherapy is a treatment of psychological distress. There are several factors which contribute to the healing process. They are:

Techniques: A major factor in healing is the techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with the client. If the behavioural system and the CBT school are adopted to heal an anxious client, the relaxation procedures and the cognitive restructuring largely contribute to the healing.

The therapeutic alliance: This is formed between the therapist and the client, has healing properties, because of the regular availability of the therapist, and the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist.

Catharsis: At the onset of therapy, while the client is being interviewed in the initial sessions to understand the nature of the problem, he/she unburdens the emotional problems being faced. This process of emotional unburdening is known as catharsis, and it has healing properties.

Non-specific factors: These factors are called non-specific because they occur across different systems of psychotherapy and across different clients and different therapists. Patient variables like the motivation for change, expectation of improvement due to the treatment, etc. are the non-specific factors associated with the client. The therapist variables include absence of unresolved emotional conflicts, presence of good mental health, etc.

Question 27.
Describe any three Anxiety disorders.
OR
Describe any two disorders in each of the two categories of somatic illness and related disorders and dissociative disorders. [3]
Answer:
Anxiety refers to diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. Symptoms of anxiety include rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, Loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination and tremors.

Anxiety disorders are of the following types:

(1) Generalized anxiety disorder: Refers to like prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fear which is not attached to any particular object or person. Symptoms include worry, apprehensive feeling about future, hyper vigilance that involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers.

(2) Panic disorder: Refers to recurrent anxiety attacks, feeling intense terror. A panic attack denotes an abrupt of intense anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of particular stimuli are present. Symptoms include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing control or dying.

(3) Phobias: Refer to irrational fear related to a specific object, people or situations. Phobia often develops gradually, starts with a general anxiety disorder. For example, people scared to climb heights, afraid of deep waters, in an elevator.

Phobias can be grouped into 3 types:
(i) Specific Phobia: Includes irrational fears of a certain animal, or being in an enclosed space.
(ii) Social Phobia: Refers to intense and incapacitating fear and embarrassment when dealing with other characters.
(iii) Agoraphobia: It is when people develop a fear of entering unfamiliar situations.

Somatoform Disorders refer to conditions, where there are physical symptoms despite no physical disease. The individual complains of physical symptoms, for which there is no biological cause. Two disorders in this category are:

(1) Conversion disorder: person reports loss of a part or all of some basic body functions. For example, paralysis, blindness, deafness and difficulty in walking are the generally reported symptoms which may occur after a sudden stressful or traumatic experience.
(2) Illness anxiety disorder: People with this disorder show signs of persistent preoccupation about developing a serious illness, despite the lack of physical findings. This is accompanied by extreme anxiety which doesn’t reduce despite the reassurance given by doctors.

Dissociative Disorders: Dissociation involves feeling of unreality, estrangement, depersonalization and loss or shift of identity.

Two of the disorders in this category are:
(1) Dissociative Amnesia: Extensive but selective memory loss that has no known organic cause like head injury or anything due to overwhelming stress. Symptoms: inability to remember the past or specific people, events, places, names.
(2) Dissociative fugue: due to unexpected travel away from home or workplace, people sometimes assume new identity and inability to recall the previous identity. The fugue usually ends when person returns to regular life or wakes up.

Section – D (16 Marks)

Question 28.
During the lockdown amidst the Covid-19 pandemic, many people became a part of various virtual groups. What are the various reasons for people to join groups? [4]
Answer:
A group refers to an organised system of two or more individuals who are interacting and are interdependent, who have common motives, have set role relationships amongst the members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of members. Amidst the corona pandemic, due to the Lockdown, people were not able to meet their loved ones and spend quality time with them.

This led to an increase in the feelings of isolation and hence to reconnect and have their intellectual and emotional needs satisfied, many people became members of virtual groups. Some of the other reasons why people joined these groups are as follows :

Security: This includes a sense of comfort and protection. An individual feels less vulnerable to threats by being a member of a group.
Status: Associating with a powerful group gives one a sense of pride and power.
Self-esteem: It is the feeling of self-worth and positive social identity that results from being a member of a group.
Satisfaction of social/psychological needs: The sense of belonging, needs of attention, love and power are satisfied.
Share knowledge and information: Groups supplement knowledge by providing a forum to share and exchange thoughts.
Goal achievement: Groups provide power as one feels a part of a majority and this helps them achieve goals too.

Question 29.
Describe how attitude and message characteristics are important factors determining attitude change. [4]
Answer:
Attitude change is dependent upon few factors, two of which are as follows:

Characteristics of the existing attitude: All four properties of attitudes, namely, valence (positivity or negativity), extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude change. In general, positive attitudes are easier to change than negative attitudes.

Extreme attitudes and central attitudes are more difficult to change than the less extreme, and peripheral (less significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes are easier to change than multiple attitudes are. An attitude change may be congruent i.e., it may change in the same direction as the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude may become more positive, or a negative attitude may become more negative).

On the other hand, an attitude change may be incongruent i.e., it may change in a direction opposite to the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude becomes less positive, or negative, or a negative attitude becomes less negative, or positive). Research has found that fear sometimes works well in convincing people but if a message generates too much fear, it turns off the receiver and has little persuasive effect.

Message characteristics: The message is the information that is presented in order to bring about an attitude change. Whether the message contains a rational or an emotional appeal, also makes a difference.

For example, an advertisement for cooking food in a pressure cooker may point out that this saves fuel such as cooking gas (LPG) and is economical (rational appeal). Alternatively, the advertisement may say that pressure cooking preserves nutrition, and that if one cares for the family, nutrition would be a major concern (emotional appeal). The motives activated by the message also determine attitude change. For example, drinking milk may be said to make a person healthy.

Question 30.
How is intelligence perceived differently across cultures?
OR
Describe various types of tests used to measure intelligence. [4]
Answer:
Culture refers to a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and literature. It is rightly said that an individual’s intelligence is likely to be tuned by cultural parameters.

Technological intelligence	Integral intelligence
Present in technologically advanced societies.	Present in less developed societies.
The focus is on personal achievement and goal-directed, behaviour and development of skills of generalisation, abstraction, speed, minimal moves and mental manipulation.	The focus is on social and emotional skills.
Emphasis is upon the development of cognitive tasks that require (1) Attention, (2) Observation, (3) Analysis, (4) Performance and (5) Speed.	Emphasis is upon holistic development i.e., combination of cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. (1) Cognitive capacity (context, understanding dis- crimination and problem-solving), (2) Social competence (respect for elders, social order and commitment to those around), (3) Emotional competence (self-regulation of emotions), (4) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistent patient, goal-directed)

Intelligence tests are of several types. On the basis of their administration procedure, they can be categorised as individual or group tests. They can also be classified as either verbal or performance tests on the basis of the nature of items used. Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over another, it can be judged as either culture-fair or culture-biased.

Individual or Group Tests: An individual intelligence test is one which can be administered to one person at a time. A group intelligence test can be administered to several persons simultaneously.

Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verbal or fully performance-based, or it may consist of a mixture of items from each category. Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally or in a written form. Therefore, verbal tests can be administered only to literate people.

The non-verbal tests use Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is an example of a nonverbal test. In this test, the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern. Performance tests require subject to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a task.

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased tests Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or culture-biased cultural biased tests are in which the questions are framed for a particular community whereas in cultural-fair tests it can be administered to every person.

Question 31.
‘Efforts to categorise people into personality types have been made since ancient times’. Elaborate the approach to personality and give any two theories.
OR
With the help of any 2 Post-Freudians, elucidate how Freudian concepts were modified and redefined over time in brief. [4]
Answer:
Two types of approach personality attempts to comprehend and segregate people into groups by examining certain broad patterns in behavioural characteristics of people. So each pattern type refers to a group of people who have similar behavioural attributes.

The Greek physician Hippocrates had proposed a typology of personality based on fluid/humour: Sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric. In the Indian tradition, personality types were classified in Charak Samhita, a famous treatise based on Ayurveda, as – Vata, Pitta and Kapha based on three humoral elements – Tridosha Typology of personality was also based on the tribunals and is as follows:

(i) Sattva: It is characterised by cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, detachment and discipline.
(ii) Rajas: It is characterized by intensive activity, desire for sense gratification, dissatisfaction and envy.
(iii) Tamas: It is characterised by anger, arrogance, depression, Laziness and feeling of helplessness.

Friedman and Rosenman introduced the concepts of Type A and Type B Personality.

Type A: These people possess high motivation, lack patience, fall short of time, remain in a great hurry, always feel burdened with work and can’t slow down. They are more susceptible to hypertension, coronary heart disease and high cholesterol levels.
Type B: Opposite to Type A personality is the Type B, generally understood as those with absence of Type A characteristics. They are relaxed, less stressed, flexible, emotional and expressive, and have a laid-back attitude.
Type C: They are prone to cancer. They suppress negative emotions like anger or resentment.
Type D: People with a tendency towards negative emotions (e.g. worry, irritability, gloom) and social inhibition (e.g. lack of self-assurance). Since they are generally in distress, they are prone to depression.

Freud was the father of the psychodynamic approach who focused on personality development as resulting from unresolved conflicts of the past. Even though many people followed Freudian approach, some of them modified his theory:

Carl Jung: Unlike Freud who said that human behaviour is guided by unresolved conflicts and unconscious processes, Jung believed that human beings are driven by their aims and aspirations. While Freud postulated the notion of three levels of consciousness i.e., conscious, preconscious and unconscious, Jung gave the term, collective unconscious to refer to the archetypes, which are not individually acquired but are inherited.

Karen Horney: She adopted a more optimistic view of human life. According to her, human beings are driven by growth and self-actualisation, unlike Freud’s theory which viewed libido as being driven by sexual impulses. She also contributed by challenging Freud’s treatment of women as inferior. She said that each gender has attributes to be admired by the other, neither being superior or inferior.

Women are more affected by social and cultural factors. According to Horney, psychological disorders like anxiety are caused by disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood.

Alfred Adler: His basic assumption is that human behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed. Personal goals are the sources of motivation. Personality development is guided by the goals that provide us with security and help us overcome the sense of inadequacy. According to him, every individual is faced with the task of overcoming inferiority complex which is essential for optimal personality development.

Erik Erikson: Erikson focused on the role of rational and conscious ego processes in personality development. He perceived development as a lifelong process, and ego identity is granted a central place in this process. He introduced the notion of Identity crisis at the adolescent age i.e., young people must generate for themselves a central perspective and a direction that can give them a meaningful sense of unity and purpose.

Section – E (6 Marks)

Question 32.
Describe the symptoms of Schizophrenia.
OR
Give a historical account of how psychological disorders have been viewed over the ages. [6]
Answer:
The symptoms of Schizophrenia can be grouped into 3 categories: Positive (i.e. excesses of thought, emotion and behaviour), Negative (deficit of thought, emotion and behaviour) and psychomotor symptoms.

(1) Positive Symptoms: pathological excesses or bizarre additions to a person’s behaviour. Symptoms: Delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, heightened perception and hallucinations.

Delusions: false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds.

Delusions of persecution: They believe plotted against, spied on, slandered, threatened, attacked or deliberately victimized.
Delusions of reference: in which they attach personal meaning to the actions,
Delusions of grandeur: They believe themselves to be specially empowered.
Delusions of control: They believe their thoughts, feelings and actions are controlled by others.

Hallucinations: Perceptions that occur in absence of external stimuli.
They are of several types:

Auditory Hallucinations: Patients hear sounds or voices that speak directly to them.
Tactile Hallucinations: Tingling, burning sensations.
Somatic: Something happening inside the body, such as snake crawling inside stomach.
Visual: Distinct visions of people and objects.
Gustatory: Food or drink taste strange.
Olfactory: Smell of poison or smoke.

(2) Negative symptoms: are pathological deficits and include:

Alogia (reduction in speech content or poverty of speech),
Blunted effect: Less expression of emotions like sadness, joy, anger and other feelings.
Flat effect: No emotions and feelings
Loss of volition: Apathy or inability to start or complete any work.
Social withdrawal: Become focused on their own ideas and fantasies.
Psychomotor symptoms: People move less spontaneously and make odd grimaces and gestures.

The types of psychomotor symptoms are:

Catatonic stupor: remain motionless and silent for long durations.
Catatonic rigidity: maintain a rigid upright posture for hours.
Catatonic posturing: assuming odd, awkward positions.

The study of abnormality involves the analysis of why people behave, think and feel in unexpected, bizarre and self-defeating ways.
Characteristics that are considered in evaluating whether a behaviour is abnormal are the 4 D’s i.e., deviation (violation of social norms), distress (personal distress), disability (dysfunction) and dangerous (to self and others) behaviour.

Ancient times: In the ancient times, abnormal behaviour could be attributed to supernatural or magical forces (evil spirits or the devil). Exorcism, counter magic and prayers were practised to cure psychopathology.

Biological approach: People behave abnormally because their bodies and brains are not functioning normally.

Psychological: These theories suggest that inadequacies in the way an individual feels, thinks, perceives the world lead to abnormal behaviours.

Organismic: Ancient Greek philosophers (Hippocrates, Socrates and Plato) developed organismic approach. They viewed disturbed behaviour arising out of conflicts between emotion and reason. It meant the imbalance caused in the four body fluids i.e., blood, black bile, yellow biLe, phlegm.

Middle ages: During this time, abnormality was linked to superstition and demonology. People with abnormal behaviours were believed to be possessed by the demons. St. Augustine wrote about feelings, mental anguish and conflict. He laid the groundwork for modem psychodynamic theories.

Renaissance period: During this period, there was increased humanism and curiosity about behaviour. Johann Weyer perceived that disturbed interpersonal relationships were a cause of mentally disturbed behaviour and required medical treatment.

Age of Reason pnd Enlightenment (17th /18th centuries): This period saw growth of the scientific approach to abnormality and led to the development of the Reform movement. Increased compassion for those suffering led to reform of asylum, deinstitutionalisation and emphasised community care.

Section – F (8 Marks)

Case study 1

Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee intimately and have interacted with her/him over a period of time or have had a chance to observe her/him. They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities.

The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms. It has been found that use of numbers or general descriptive adjectives in rating scales always creates confusion for the rater. In order to use ratings effectively, the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors.

Question 33.
What are behavioral ratings and how are they used? [2]
Answer:
Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms. It has been found that use of numbers or general descriptive adjectives in rating scales always creates confusion for the rater. In order to use ratings effectively, the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors.

Question 34.
Give the drawbacks of behavioral rating. [2]
Answer:
The method of rating suffers from the following major limitations:

Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example: Most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.

Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale.

Case study 2

The process of transference is met with resistance. Since the process of transference exposes the unconscious wishes and conflicts, thereby increasing the distress levels, the client resists transference. Due to resistance, the client opposes the progress of therapy in order to protect herself/himself from the recall of painful unconscious memories.

Resistance can be conscious or unconscious. Conscious resistance is present when the client deliberately hides some information. Unconscious resistance is assumed to be present when the client becomes silent during the therapy session, recalls trivial details without recalling the emotional ones, misses appointments, and comes late for therapy sessions.

Question 35.
What is transference? [2]
Answer:
As the unconscious forces are brought into the conscious realm through free association and dream interpretation described above, the client starts identifying the therapist with the authority figures of the past, usually childhood. The therapist maintains a non-judgmental yet permissive attitude and allows the client to continue with this process of emotional identification. This is the process of transference. The therapist encourages this process because it helps her/him in understanding the unconscious conflicts of the client.

Question 36.
Explain transference neurosis. What is meant by insight? [2]
Answer:
The therapist becomes a substitute for that person in the present. This stage is called transference neurosis. A full-blown transference neurosis is helpful in making the therapist aware of the nature of intrapsychic conflicts suffered by the client. The repeated process of using confrontation, clarification, and interpretation is known as working through.

Working through helps the patient to understand herself/himself and the source of the problem and to integrate the uncovered material into her/his ego. The outcome of working through is insight. Insight is not a sudden event but a gradual process wherein the unconscious memories are repeatedly integrated into conscious awareness; these unconscious events and memories are re-experienced in transference and are worked through.