Students must start practicing the questions from CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology with Solutions Set 8 are designed as per the revised syllabus.
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology Set 8 with Solutions
Time Allowed: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks: 80
General Instructions :
All questions are compulsory except where internal choice has been given.
- Question Nos 1-18 in Section A carry 1 mark each.
- Question Nos 19-23 in Section B are Very Short Answer Type – I questions carrying 2 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
- Question Nos 24-27 in Section C are Short Answer Questions Type – II carrying 3 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 60 words.
- Question Nos 28-31 in Section D are Long Answer Type – I questions carrying 4 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 120 words.
- Question No. 32 in Section E is a Long Answer Type – II question carrying 6 marks. Answer to this question should not exceed 200 words.
- Question Nos 33-36 in Section F are based on two cases given. Each case has two questions carrying two marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
Section – A (18 Marks)
Question 1.
____________uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals. [1]
(a) Psychological assessment
(b) Behavioral rating
(c) Situational tests
(d) None ofthe above
Answer:
(a) Psychological assessment
Explanation: Psychological assessment is a thorough and detailed assessment of a person which provides with more insight.
Question 2.
Manav hit his friend as his friend was making fun of him. But upon asking, Manav told that he did not why he did that. Which defense mechanism is he using? [1]
(a) Repression
(b) Reaction formation
(c) Denial
(d) Sublimation
Answer:
(a) Repression
Explanation: In repression, a person does not know why s/he did that thing and it in an unconscious way.
Question 3.
Match the following psychologists with the theories they gave. [1]
| Column A | Column B |
| (A) Robert Sternberg
(B) Arthur Jensen (C) J.P Das (D) Alfred Binet |
(1) Uni factor theory
(2) PASS model (3) Triarchic Theory (4) Hierarchical model |
(a) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-l
(b) A-2; B-l; C-3; D-4
(c) A-l; B-2; C-3; D-4
(d) A-4; B-3; C-4; D-l
Answer:
(a) A-3; B-4; C-2;D-l
Question 4.
Which approach focuses on the interplay of situational characteristics in our personality? [1]
(a) Interactional approach
(b) Behavioral approach
(c) Humanistic approach
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Interactional approach
Explanation: In this approach, the personality is seen from various angles before arriving to any conclusion as environment plays a very important role.
Question 5.
Which theory mentions 7 types of intelligence that are independent of each other? [1]
(a) Multiple intelligences theory
(b) Theory of primary abilities
(c) Triarchic theory
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Theory of primary abilities
Explanation: This theory was given by Luis Thurstone and it mentions 7 types of intelligence which are independent.
Question 6.
Which of the following options are projective tests and self-report measures? [1]
(i) Minnesota Multiphasic personality
(ii) Rorschach Inkblot test
(iii) Draw a person test,
(iv) Sentence completion test
(a) Only (i) is true
(b) (ii), (ii) & (iv) are true
(c) Only (ii) & (iv) are true
(d) (iv) is true
Answer:
(b) (ii), (iii) & (iv) are true
Explanation: Projective tests: Rorschach Inkblot test, Draw a person test and Sentence completion test Self report measures: Minnesota Multiphasic personality inventory
Question 7.
________which are agents causing physical illness. [1]
(a) Virus
(b) Bacteria
(c) Stress
(d) Pathogens
Answer:
(d) Pathogens
Explanation: Pathogens cause physical illnesses.
Question 8.
Gaurav has been feeling that his thoughts are being controlled by the government delusion he might be suffering from? [1]
(a) Delusion of control
(b) Delusion of reference
(c) Delusion of persecution
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Delusion of control
Explanation: In this delusion, one feels that someone is trying to control their thoughts.
Question 9.
________is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment. [1]
(a) Case study
(b) Interview
(c) Observation
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Case study
Explanation: A case study is an in depth technique which help a psychologist to form a whole case history
Question 10.
The mental age of a child is 10 and his choronological age is 12. Calculate his IQ? [1]
(a) 85
(b) 84
(c) 90
(d) 70
Answer:
(b) 84
Explanation: \(\mathrm{IQ}=\frac{\mathrm{MA}}{\mathrm{CA}} \times 100,1 Q=\frac{10}{12} \times 100\)
Question 11.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice. [1]
Assertion (A): There is a consistency between attitude and behavior when it is strong and occupied central space.
Reason (R): When an attitude is strong and is central then our behavior is congruent as our basis and explanations are valid and have a base.
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (IQ are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason is true.
Answer:
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
Explanation: An attitude and behavior is consistent when it is not being evaluated, is central to the attitude system and person is self aware.
Question 12.
_________is the phenomena by which the majority group places the blame on a minority outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems. [1]
(a) Scapegoating
(b) Kernel of truth
(c) Prejudice
(d) Discrimination
Answer:
(a) Scapegoating
Explanation: Scapegoating is the phenomena when the minorities are blamed for their own problems.
Question 13.
In Arthur Jensen Hierarchical Model, Level I is known as: [1]
(a) Associative learning
(b) Cognitive competence
(c) Association
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Associative Learning
Explanation: The Level 1 is associative learning in which one grasps the meaning of the situation.
Question 14.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): People obey from higher authorities.
Reason (R): They obey as they think it’s the higher authorities word and they have no responsibility for any consequences. [1]
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion(A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Answer:
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
Explanation: people obey as they think they are not responsible for the actions and they are carrying orders from higher authority.
Question 15.
Equity refers to distribution of rewards in proportion to an individual’s contributions. [1]
(a) Social facilitation
(b) Social identity
(c) Equity
(d) Individual effort
Answer:
(c) Equity
Explanation: Equality is distribution of rewards equal to individual’s contribution.
Question 16.
How many kinds of self are there according to Roger’s? [1]
(a) Personal and social self
(b) Real and ideal self
(c) Real and personal self
(d) Social and real self
Answer:
(b) Real and ideal self
Explanation: In real self it is the one that exists and ideal self is the one that the person aspires to be.
Question 17.
Which of these tests is used for Vocational exploration? [1]
(a) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(b) 16 Personality Factor
(c) Eysenck’s Questionnaire
(d) Thematic Apperception Test
Answer:
(b) 16 Personality Factor
Explanation: 16 Personality Factor is used for vocational exploration and academics.
Question 18.
In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice.
Assertion (A): The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. [1]
Reason (R): This is because sympathetic nervous system is activated(d).
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true
Answer:
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
Explanation: There is ineffectiveness of the stress systems because the stress is prolonged as the parasympathetic nervous system fails to deal with the effects of stress.
Section -B (10 Marks)
Question 19.
Differentiate between Culturally biased and Culturally fair test with examples. [2]
Answer:
| Culturally fair tests | Culturally biased test |
| Culture-fair or culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures. | Many intelligence tests j show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. |
| In such tests, items are constructed in a manner that they assess experiences common to all cultures or have questions in which language usage is not required. | Educated middleclass white subjects Generally perform well on those tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups. |
| Example: non verbal tests help minimize culture biaseness. | Example: verbal test |
Question 20.
Explain the Two step concept given by S.M Mohsin.
OR
How does the characteristics of the existing attitude affect attitude change. [2]
Answer:
According to S. M. Mohsin, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps. In the first step, the target of change identifies with the source. The ’target’ is the person whose attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is the person through whose influence the change is to take place. Identification means that the target has liking and regard for the source. S/he puts herself/ himself in the place of the target, and tries to feel like her/him.
The source must also have a positive attitude towards the target, and the regard and attraction becomes mutual In the second step, the source herself/himself shows an attitude change, by actually changing her/ him behaviour towards the attitude object Observing the source’s changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour.
OR
The 4 characteristics of existing attitude which are valence (positivity or negativity), extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity), and centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude change. Positive attitudes are easier to change than negative attitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and central attitudes are more difficult to change than the less extreme, and peripheral (less significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes are easier to change than multiple attitudes are.
Question 21.
Explain the coping techniques given by Lazarus. [2]
Answer:
Lazarus and Folkman has conceptualised coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual trait. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction. Coping serves to allow the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional response to that problem.
According to them coping responses can be divided into two types of responses, problem-focused and emotion focused. Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments.
They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat valueofthe event. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself.
Question 22.
What is meant by “Giftedness”. Write any 4 characteristics of Gifted Children. [2]
Answer:
Giftedness is an exceptional ability shown in a variety of areas. It is usually found in children whose IQ is above 130. Giftedness is different from Talent as talent refers to exceptional ability in a specific area like singing, dancing whereas giftedness is a general ability. The characteristics of gifted children are :
(1) High level of intrinsic motivation and arousal
(2) Advanced logical thinking, reasoning and problem solving
(3) Independent and non conformist thinking
(4) High speed processing information
Question 23.
Explain any 2 life skills with examples from real life. [2]
Answer:
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of the everyday life. Some of these life skills are:
(1) Assertiveness: Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is the ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion without being self-conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc openly. If you are assertive: you feel confident, and have high self-esteem and a solid sense of your own identity.
(2) Improving Relationships: The key to a sound lasting relationship is communication. This consists of three essential skills: listening to what the other person is saying, expressing how you feel and what you think, and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different from your own.
Section – C (12 Marks)
Question 24.
Write a short note on Thematic Apperception test and give two uses of projective techniques. [3]
Answer:
This test was developed by Morgan and Murray. It is a little more structured than the Inkblot test. The test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card. Each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations. Each picture is printed on a card. Some cards are used with adult males or females. Others are used with boys or girls.
Still others are used in some combinations. Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject, although a lesser number of cards (even five) have also been successfully used. The cards are presented one at a time. The subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture. Uses of projective techniques are:
(1) Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings due to their unstructured/ semi-structured stimuli.
(2) Each response is considered to reveal a significant aspect of personality.
Question 25.
How does Yoga help in treating mental illnesses. Throw light on Sudarshana Kriya Yoga. [3]
Answer:
Yoga is a part of Alternative therapies as it is another way of treating mental illnesses. Yoga techniques enhance well-being, mood, attention, mental focus, and stress tolerance. Yoga refers to only the asanas or body posture component or to breathing practices or pranayama, or to a combination of the two.
Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on breath or on an object or thought or a mantra. The rapid breathing techniques to induce hyperventilation as in Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (SKY) is found to be a beneficial, low-risk, low-cost adjunct to the treatment of stress, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, stress related medical illnesses, substance abuse, and rehabilitation of criminal offenders.
Question 26.
Maya has the fear of spiders. When she visited her psychologists, her psychologist showed her a hierarchy in which she explained the way they would deal with her phobia. Explain the technique presented in this case and also explain any 1 technique that could be used. [3]
OR
Jason is addicted to alcohol and nicotine. Whenever he has some alcohol, he experiences nausea and dizziness. What type of conditioning this might be? Explain the behavioral technique used. Also explain Positive reinforcement.
Answer:
Maya had fear of spiders and when she visited her psychologist, she showed Maya a hierarchy and explained how they would deal with that phobia. The technique used is Systematic Desensitisation. This technique was developed by Wolpe. Systematic desensitisation is a technique introduced by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears.
The client is interviewed to elicit fear provoking situations and together with the client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking stimuli with the least anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom of the hierarchy. The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to think about the least anxiety provoking situation.
The client is asked to stop thinking of the fearful situation if the slightest tension is felt Over sessions, the client is able to imagine more severe fear provoking situations while maintaining the relaxation.The client gets systematically desensitised to the fear.
Other behavioral techniques used are:
Principle of reciprocal inhibition: The principle of reciprocal inhibition operates here. This principle states that the presence of two mutually opposing forces at the same time, inhibits the weaker force.
Thus, the relaxation response is first built up and mildly anxiety provoking scene is imagined, and the anxiety is overcome by the relaxation. The client is able to tolerate progressively greater levels of anxiety because of her/his relaxed state.
OR
Aversive conditioning refers to repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence. For example, an alcoholic is given a mild electric shock and asked to smell the alcohol With repeated pairings the smell of alcohol is aversive as the pain of the shock is associated with it and the person will give up alcohol Positive reinforcement is given to increase the deficit For example, if a child does not do homework regularly, positive reinforcement may be used by the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite dish whenever s/he does homework at the appointed time. The positive reinforcement of food will increase the behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time
Question 27.
What do you mean by coping? Explain the types of coping with real life examples. [3]
Answer:
Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. There are 3 types of coping one can use:
Task-oriented Strategy: This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, setting priorities during exams.
Emotion-oriented Strategy: This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions; it can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example, releasing pent up emotions during stressful situations through crying.
Avoidance-oriented Strategy: This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation; it also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self protective thoughts. For example, avoiding studying when exams are coming.
Section – D (16 Marks)
Question 28.
What are Neurodevelopmental disorders? What are the two main features of attention Deficit Hyperactivity disorder? [4]
OR
John has been suspended due to continuous fighting with his classmates. He is not listening to his teachers and parents and is constantly defying the orders. He was given a forewarning that he would be suspended if he kept up this behavior, but despite warnings he kept up this behavior. Which kind of disorder he might be suffering from. Enumerate with other subtypes of the same category.
Answer:
Neuro-developmental disorders is that they manifest in the early stage of development Often the symptoms appear before the child enters school or during the early stage of schooling. These get characterised as deficits or excesses in a particular behaviour or delays in achieving a particular age-appropriate behaviour.
In Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder there are 2 main features which characterise this disorder, Inattention and Hyperactivity Impulsivity. Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play. They have a hard time keeping their minds on any one thing or in following instructions.
Common complaints are that the child does not listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow instructions, is disorganised, easily distracted, forgetful, does not finish assignments, and is quick to lose interest in boring activities. Children who are impulsive seem unable to control their immediate reactions or to think before they act.
They find it difficult to wait or take turns, have difficulty resisting immediate temptations or delaying gratification. Children with ADHD are in constant motion. Sitting still through a lesson is impossible for them. The child may fidget, squirm, climb and run around the room aimlessly. Parents and teachers describe them as ‘driven by a motor’, always on the go, and talk incessantly.
OR
John might be suffering from Opposition Defiant Disorder as he show defiant behvaior and no regard for authorities and even has been warned but there was no change. Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) display age-inappropriate amounts of stubbornness, are irritable, defiant, disobedient, and behave in a hostile manner.
Individuals with ODD do not see themselves as angry, oppositional, or defiant and often justify their behaviour as reaction to circumstances/demands. Thus, the symptoms of the disorder become entangled with the problematic interactions with others.
The other related disorders are :
(1) Conduct disorder: it is usually disganosed in young adults and people with conduct disorder might have symptoms of ODD. The behaviours typical of conduct disorder include aggressive actions that cause or threaten harm to people or animals, nonaggressive conduct that causes property damage, major deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule violations. Children show many different types of aggressive behaviour, such as
(a) verbal aggression (i.e. name-calling, swearing),
(b) physical aggression (i.e. hitting, fighting),
(c) hostile aggression (i.e. directed at inflicting injury to others), and
(d) proactive aggression (i.e. dominating and bullying others without provocation).
(2) Antisocial Personality disorder: this is the severe form of defiant disorder and people with this disorder are stubborn, defiant and do not know the difference between right and wrong. They pose a serious threat to the society due to their irrational behavior.
Question 29.
Explain the process of Attitude Formation. [4]
Answer:
Attitudes are learned through one’s own experiences, and through interaction with others. The process of attitude formation is:
Learning attitudes by association: When we associate something with a thing we like. For example, having a liking towards a particular subject because your favorite teacher teaches it So there is an association between the subject and the teacher.
Learning attitudes by being rewarded or punished: If an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude, chances are high that s/he will develop that attitude further.
Learning attitudes through modeling (observing others): Often it is not through association, or through reward and punishment, that we learn attitudes. We can also learn attitudes by observing someone significant to us.
Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms: Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms may actually be an example of all three forms of learning described above learning through association, reward or punishment, and modeling. Example, touching feet of elders is auspicious so learning of this attitude through cultural norms.
Learning through exposure to information: Many attitudes are learned in a social context but not necessarily in the physical presence of others.
Question 30.
Explain the Psychometric and Information Processing Approach to Intelligence and state any 2 theories of Psychometric approach. [4]
Answer:
| Psychometric approach |
Information processing approach |
| It considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. | It describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. |
| Focusing on structure of intelligence or its underlying dimensions. | Emphasise studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour. |
Question 31.
The social and psychological costs of schizophrenia are tremendous, both to patients as well as to their families and society. Enumerate in respect to negative symptoms. [4]
OR
Explain the Diathesis stress model with an example.
Answer:
The social and psychological costs of Schizophrenia are tremendous, both to patients as well as to their families and society. This statement reflects the impact of schizophrenia on ones life and also on other’s life. Schizophrenia refers to a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed thought processes, strange perceptions, unusual emotional states, and motor abnormalities.
The symptoms of schizophrenia can be grouped into three categories
(a) Positive symptoms (add on or excessive to normal behavior)
(b) Negative Symptoms (deficits in normal behavior)
(c) Psychomotor symptoms Negative symptoms are ‘pathological deficits’ and include poverty of speech, blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, and social withdrawal.
People with schizophrenia show alogia or poverty of speech, i.e. a reduction in speech and speech content Many people with schizophrenia show less anger, sadness, joy, and other feelings than most people do. Thus they have blunted affect.
Some show no emotions at all a condition known as flat affect. Also patients with schizophrenia experience avolition, or apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action. People with this disorder may withdraw socially and become totally focused on their own ideas and fantasies
OR
Diathesis-stress model: This model states that psychological disorders develop when a diathesis (biological predisposition to the disorder) is set off by a stressful situation. This model has three components. The first is the diathesis or the presence of some biological aberration which may be inherited. The second component is that the diathesis may carry a vulnerability to develop a psychological disorder. This means that the person is ‘at risk’ or ’predisposed’ to develop the disorder.
The third component is the presence of pathogenic stressors, i.e. factors/ stressors that may lead to psychopathology. If such “at risk” persons are exposed to these stressors, their predisposition may actually evolve into a disorder. For example, a child has a mother who is depressive, so s/he has a predispotion. If the child would be placed in a stressful environment where there is no nurture and warmth, then the predisposition will set off triggering symptoms of depression.
Section – E (6 Marks)
Question 32.
Explain the different types of Humanistic Existential therapy.
OR
Explain Cognitive therapies. [6]
Answer:
The humanistic-existential therapies postulate that psychological distress arises from feelings of loneliness, alienation, and an inability to find meaning and genuine fulfillment in life. Human beings are motivated by the desire for personal growth and seLf-actualisation, and an innate need to grow emotionally.
When these needs are curbed by society and family, human beings experience psychological distress. Self-actualisation is defined as an innate or inborn force that moves the person to become more complex, balanced, and integrated, i.e. achieving the complexity and balance without being fragmented. Integrated means a sense of whole, being a complete person, being in essence the same person in spite of the variety of experiences that one is subjected to.
Healing occurs when the client is able to perceive the obstacles to self equalisation in her/his life and is able to remove them. Self-actualisation requires free emotional expression. The therapist is merely a facilitator and guide. It is the client who is responsible for the success of therapy. The chief aim of the therapy is to expand the client’s awareness. Healing takes place by a process of understanding the unique personal\ experience of the client by herself/himself.
(1) Existential Therapy: Victor FrankL a psychiatrist and neurologist propounded the Logotherapy. Logos is the Greek word for soul and Logotherapy means treatment for the souL Frankl calls this process of finding meaning even in life-threatening circumstances as the process of meaning making.
The basis of meaning making is a person’s quest for finding the spiritual truth of one’s existence. Neurotic anxieties arise when the problems of life are attached to the physicaL psychological or spiritual aspects of one’s existence. Frankl emphasised the role of spiritual anxieties in leading to meaninglessness and hence it may be called an existential anxiety, i.e. neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin.
The goal find meaning and responsibility in their life irrespective of their life circumstances. The therapist emphasises the unique nature of the patient’s life and encourages them to find meaning in their life. In The emphasis is on here and now. Transference is actively discouraged. The therapist reminds the client about the immediacy of the present The goal is to facilitate the client to find the meaning of her/his being.
(2) Client-centred Therapy: Client-centred therapy was given by Carl Rogers. Rogers combined scientific rigor with the individualised practice of client centred psychotherapy. The therapist shows empathy, i.e. understanding the client’s experience as if it were her/his own, is warm and has unconditional positive regard, i.e. total acceptance of the client as s/he is.
Empathy sets up an emotional resonance between the therapist and the client Unconditional positive regard indicates that the positive warmth of the therapist is not dependent on what the client reveals or does in the therapy sessions.
This unique unconditional warmth ensures that the client feels secure and can trust the therapist. The client feels secure enough to explore her/his feelings. The therapist reflects the feelings of the client in a non-judgmental manner. The reflection is achieved by rephrasing the statements of the client, i.e. seeking simple clarifications to enhance the meaning of the client’s statements.
This process of reflection helps the client to become integrated. Personal relationships improve with an increase in adjustment In essence, this therapy helps a client to become her/his real self with the therapist working as a facilitator.
(3) Gestalt Therapy: The German word ’gestalt’ means ‘whole’. This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz) Peris together with his wife Laura Peris. The goal of gestalt therapy is to increase an individual’s self awareness and self acceptance. The client is taught to recognise the bodily processes and the emotions that are being blocked out from awareness. The therapist does this by encouraging the client to act out fantasies about feelings and conflicts. This therapy can also be used in group settings.
OR
Cognitive therapies locate the cause of psychological distress in irrational thoughts and beliefs. Albert Ellis formulated the Rational Emotive Therapy (RET). The central thesis of this therapy is that irrational beliefs mediate between the antecedent events and their consequences. The first step in RET is the antecedent belief-consequence (ABC) analysis.
Antecedent events, which caused the psychological distress, are noted. The client is also interviewed to find the irrational beliefs, which are distorting the present reality. Irrational beliefs may not be supported by empirical evidence in the environment.
These beliefs are characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, i.e. things ‘must’ and ‘should’ be in a particular manner. This distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the irrational belief leads to the consequence, i.e. negative emotions and behaviours.
Irrational beliefs are assessed through questionnaires and interviews. In the process of RET, the irrational beliefs are refuted by the therapist through a process of nondirective questioning. The nature of questioning is gentle, without probing or being directive. The questions make the client to think deeper into her/his assumptions about life and problems. Gradually the client is able to change the irrational beliefs by making a change in her/his philosophy about life.
The rational belief system replaces the irrational belief system and there is a reduction in psychological distress. Another cognitive therapy is that of Aaron Beck.
His theory of psychological distress characterised by anxiety or depression, states that childhood experiences provided by the family and society develop core schemas or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual. Thus, a client who was neglected by the parents as a child, develops the core schema of “I am not wanted”.
During the course of life, a critical incident occurs in her/his life. S/he is publicly ridiculed by the teacher in school This critical incident triggers the core schema of “I am not wanted” leading to the development of negative automatic thoughts.
Negative thoughts are persistent irrational thoughts such as “nobody loves me”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will not succeed”, etc Such negative automatic thoughts are characterised by cognitive distortions. Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are general in nature but which distort the reality in a negative manner. These patterns of thought are called dysfunctional cognitive structures.
They lead to errors of cognition about the social reality. Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the development of feelings of anxiety and depression. The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, non-threatening disputation of the client’s beliefs and thoughts. The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to that of the negative automatic thoughts whereby s/he gains insight into the nature of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and is able to alter her/his cognitive structures.
The aim of the therapy is to achieve this cognitive restructuring which, in turn, reduces anxiety and depression. The most popular therapy presently is the Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT).
Research into the outcome ‘and effectiveness of psychotherapy has conclusively established CBT to be a short and efficacious treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks, and borderline personality, etc. CBT adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the delineation of psychopathology. It combines cognitive therapy with behavioural techniques.
The rationale is that the client’s distress has its origins in the biological, psychological, and social realms. Hence, addressing the biological aspects through relaxation procedures, the psychological ones through behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy techniques and the social ones with environmental manipulations makes CBT a comprehensive technique which is easy to use, applicable to a variety of disorders, and has proven efficacy.
Section – F (8 Marks)
Case study 1
To know, understand and describe people is a task in which everybody is involved in day-to-day life. When we meet new people, we often try to understand them and even predict what they may do before we interact with them. In our personal lives, we rely on our past experiences, observations, conversations and information obtained from other persons. This approach of understanding others may be influenced by a number of factors that may colour our judgement and reduce objectivity. Hence, we need to organise our efforts more formally to analyse personalities. A formal effort aimed at understanding personality of an individual is termed as personality assessment.
Question 33.
What is an Assessment? [2]
Answer:
Assessment refers to the procedures used to evaluate or differentiate people on the basis of certain characteristics. The goal of assessment is to understand and predict behaviour with minimum error and maximum accuracy.
Question 34.
Explain any one technique of assessment. [2]
Answer:
The most commonly used techniques are Psychometric Tests, Self-Report Measures, Projective Techniques, and Behavioural Analysis. It was Allport who suggested that the best method to assess a person is by asking her/ him about herself/himself This Led to the use of self-report measures. These are fairly structured measures, often based on theory, that require subjects to give verbal responses using some kind of rating scale. The method requires the subject to objectively report her/his own feelings with respect to various items. The responses are accepted at their face value. They are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms developed for the test.
Case study 2
Explanations of such conflicts can be at the structural, group, and individual levels. Structural conditions include high rates of poverty, economic and social stratification, inequality, limited political and social opportunity, etc. Research on group level factors has shown that social identity, realistic conflict between groups over resources, and unequal power relations between groups lead to escalation ofconflict At the individual level, beliefs, biased attitudes, and personality characteristics are important determinants. It has been found that at the individual level, there is a progression along a continuum of violence. Very small acts that initially may have no significance, like calling the other group a name, may lead psychological changes that make further destructive actions possible.
Question 35.
Explain the consequences of Intergroup conflict.
Answer:
Deutsch identified the following consequences of intergroup conflict [2]
(1) Communication between the groups becomes poor. The groups do not trust each other, thereby leading to a breakdown in communication and this generates suspicion for each other.
(2) Groups start magnifying their differences and start perceiving their behaviour as fair and the other’s behaviour as unfair.
(3) Each side tries to increase its own power and legitimacy. As a consequence, the conflict gets escalated shifting from few specific issues to much larger issues.
(4) Once conflict starts, several other factors lead to escalation of conflict. Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicit threats directed at the outgroup, each group retaliating more and more, and other parties also choosing to take sides lead to escalation of conflict.
Question 36.
Explain any 2 ways in which intergroup conflict can be reduced. [2]
Answer:
Conflicts can be reduced if we know about their causes. The processes that increase conflict can be turned around to reduce it also. These are:
(1) Introduction of superordinate goals: Sherifs study, already mentioned in the section on cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
(2) Altering perceptions: Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in society. Promoting empathy far others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning.